Calculus 2 Rules

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Prepared by Halla Mohamed

 General rules

May 12, 2025

Basic Integration

Variable of Function Integral Conditions

R
k (constant) k dx = kx + C

xn+1
xn xn dx =
R
n+1 +C n ̸= −1

1 1
R
x x dx = ln |x| + C x ̸= 0

ex ex dx = ex + C
R

kx
kx k x dx =
R
ln k +C k > 0, k ̸= 1
R f \ (x)
f (x) f (x) dx = ln |f (x)| + C
f \ (x)
p p
√
R
f (x) dx = 2 f (x) + C
f (x)

f \ (x)(f (x))n dx =
R
(f (x))n (f (x))n+1 f (x) 1st degree
n+1 +C

Trig Integration

Trigonometric Functions Square Integral

sin(2u)
sin2 u dx = u
R R
2 − 4 +C sin x dx = − cos x + C

u sin(2u)
cos2 u dx =
R R
2 + 4 +C cos x dx = sin x + C

tan2 u dx = tan u − u + C
R R
tan x dx = − ln | cos x| = ln | sec x| + C

sec2 u dx = tan u + C
R R
sec x dx = ln | tan x + sec x| + C

csc2 u dx = − cot u + C
R R
csc x dx = ln | csc x − cot x| + C

cot2 u dx = − cot u − u + C
R R
cot x dx = ln | sin x| = − ln | csc x| + C

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General Trigonometric Rules:
The Rules:

1 + tan2 x = sec2 x (1)

2 2
1 + cot x = csc x (2)
2 2
sin x + cos x = 1 (3)
1
cos2 x = (1 + cos 2x) (4)
2
2 1
sin x = (1 − cos 2x) (5)
2
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x (6)
2 2
cos 2x = cos x − sin x (7)
2
= cos x − 1 (8)
2
= 1 − sin x (9)
(10)

Trigonometric Substitution Formulas

Expression Substitution Simplified Form Diagram
√
√ √ x2 + a2
x2 + a2 x = a tan θ x2 + a2 = a sec θ x
θ
a
√ √ a x
a2 − x2 x = a sin θ a2 − x2 = a cos θ
√θ
a2 − x2
√ √ x √
x2 − a2 x = a sec θ x2 − a2 = a tan θ x2 − a2
θ
a

Trig Powers
sinm x cosn x dx
R
Strategy for Evaluating
(a) If the power of cosine is odd (n = 2k + 1), save one cosine factor and use cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x to express the remaining
factors in terms of sine: Z Z
sinm x cos2k+1 x dx = sinm x(cos2 x)k cos x dx
Z
= sinm x(1 − sin2 x)k cos x dx

Then substitute u = sin x.

(b) If the power of sine is odd (m = 2k + 1), save one sine factor and use sin2 x = 1 − cos2 x to express the remaining factors
in terms of cosine: Z Z
2k+1
sin x cos x dx = (sin2 x)k cosn x sin x dx
n

Z
= (1 − cos2 x)k cosn x sin x dx

Then substitute u = cos x. [Note that if the powers of both sine and cosine are odd, either (a) or (b) can be used.]
(c) If the powers of both sine and cosine are even, use the half-angle identities
1 1
sin2 x = (1 − cos 2x) cos2 x = (1 + cos 2x)
2 2

It is sometimes helpful to use the identity

1
sin x cos x = sin 2x
2
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 R
Strategy for Evaluating tann x secn x dx
(a) If the power of secant is even (n = 2k, k ≥ 2), save a factor of sec2 x and use sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x to express the remaining
factors in terms of tan x:
Z Z
n 2k
tan x sec x dx = tann x(sec2 x)k−1 sec2 x dx

Z
= tann x(1 + tan2 x)k−1 sec2 x dx

Then substitute u = tan x.

(b) If the power of tangent is odd (m = 2k +1), save a factor of sec x tan x and use tan2 x = sec2 x−1 to express the remaining
factors in terms of sec x:
Z Z
2k+1 n
tan x sec x dx = (tan2 x)k secn−1 x sec x tan x dx

Z
= (sec2 x − 1)k secn−1 x sec x tan x dx

Then substitute u = sec x.

sinn x cosm x dx
R
In,m =
R
In,m = tann x secm x dx
*Note
• n → m → odd → Substitute the smallest
• n odd → m even → Substitute odd

• n even → m even → Substitute both of them

Sin & Cos Identities

1
sin a cos b = [sin (a + b) + sin (a − b)] (11)
2
1
cos a sin b = [sin (a + b) − sin (a − b)] (12)
2
1
cos a cos b = [cos (a + b) + cos (a − b)] (13)
2
1
sin a sin b = [cos (a − b) − cos (a + b)] (14)
2
(15)

Partial Fractions
1. Denominator with Distinct Linear Factors
General Form
For denominators with distinct linear factors:
P (x) A B C
= + + + ... (16)
(x − a)(x − b)(x − c) . . . (x − a) (x − b) (x − c)

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2. Denominator with Repeated Linear Factors
General Form
For denominators with repeated linear factors:

P (x) A B1 B2 C1 C2 C3
= + + + + + + ... (17)
(x − a)(x − b)2 (x − c)3 . . . (x − a) (x − b) (x − b)2 (x − c) (x − c)2 (x − c)3

3. Denominator with Quadratic Factors

General Form
For denominators with irreducible quadratic factors:

P (x) A Bx + C
= + 2 (18)
x(x2 + ax + b) x x + ax + b

For repeated quadratic factors:

P (x) A Bx + C Dx + E
= + 2 + (19)
x(x2 + ax + b)2 x x + ax + b (x2 + ax + b)2

4. Denominator with Second-Degree Equations

General Form
For denominators with second-degree equations:

P (x) Ax + B Cx + D A2 x + B2 C2 x + D2
= 2 + + + 2 + ... (20)
(x2 − a)2 (x2 − b)2 . . . (x − a) (x2 − a)2 (x2 − b) (x − b)2

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Completing Square
Main Formula
Z
Ax + B
dx (21)
x2 + bx + c
Z
Ax + B
OR √ dx (22)
x2 + bx + c
(23)

General Form

x2 + bx + c = 0 (24)
b b
(x + )2 − ( )2 + c = 0 (25)
2 2
(26)

Notes:
1
• sin−1 x → √
1 − x2
−1
• cos−1 x → √
1 − x2
1
• tan−1 x →
1 + x2
−1
• cot−1 x →
1 + x2
1
• sec−1 x → √
x x2 − 1
−1
• csc−1 x → √
x x2 − 1
1
• sinh−1 x → √
x2 + 1
1
• cosh−1 x → √
x2 −1
1
• tanh−1 x = coth−1 x →
1 − x2
−1
• sech−1 x → √
x 1 − x2
−1
• csch−1 x → √
|x| 1 + x2

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Arc Length
Arc Length Formula
For curves of the form y = f (x)

If f is continuous and differentiable on the interval [a, b], then the arc length is:
s  2
Z b
dy
L= 1+ dx
a dx

For curves of the form x = g(y)

If g is continuous and differentiable on the interval [c, d], then the arc length is:
s  2
Z d
dx
L= 1+ dy
c dy

Examples
Example 1. Find the arc length of y = 23 x3/2 from x = 1 to x = 2.
Solution:
2 √
f (x) = x3/2 , f ′ (x) = x
3
Z 2 Z 3
√ √
L= 1 + x dx = u du where u = 1 + x
1 2
2 
= 33/2 − 23/2 ≃ 1.578.
3
Example 2. Find the arc length of y = 12 (ex + e−x ) from x = 0 to x = 2.
Solution:
1 1
f (x) = (ex + e−x ), f ′ (x) = (ex − e−x )
2 2
1 1
[f ′ (x)]2 = (ex − e−x )2 = (e2x − 2 + e−2x )
4 4
Z 2r Z 2
1 1 x
L= 1 + (e2x − 2 + e−2x ) dx = (e + e−x ) dx
0 4 0 2
1 2
= (e − e−2 ) ≃ 1.291.
2

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Reduction formulas
Z Z
n
In = sin x dx = sinn−1 x sin x dx

Using integration by parts:

u = sinn−1 x ⇒ dv = sin x
du = (n − 1) sinn−2 x cos x dx ⇒ V = − cos x

Z
In = − cos x sinn−1 x + (n − 1) sinn−2 x cos2 x dx
Z
= − cos x sinn−1 x + (n − 1) sinn−2 x (1 − sin2 x) dx
Z Z
n−1 n−2
= − cos x sin x + (n − 1) sin x dx − (n − 1) sinn x dx

= − cos x sinn−1 x + (n − 1) [In−2 − (n − 1)In ]

In + (n − 1)In = − cos x sinn−1 x + (n − 1)In−2
nIn = − cos x sinn−1 x + (n − 1)In−2
−1 n−1
In = cos x sinn−1 x + In−2
n n
R R
2. In = cosn x dx = cosn−1 x cos x dx
Using integration by parts:

u = cosn−1 x ⇒ dv = cos x
du = (n − 1) cosn−2 x(− sin x) dx ⇒ V = sin x
Z
In = sin x cosn−1 x + (n − 1) cosn−2 x sin2 x dx
Z
n−1
= sin x cos cosn−2 x (1 − cos2 x) dx
x + (n − 1)
Z Z
= sin x cosn−1 x + (n − 1) cosn−2 x dx − (n − 1) cosn x dx

= sin x cosn−1 x + (n − 1) [In−2 − (n − 1)In ]

In + (n − 1)In = sin x cosn−1 x + (n − 1)In−2
nIn = sin x cosn−1 x + (n − 1)In−2
1 n−1
In = sin x cosn−1 x + In−2
n n

R R
3. In = secn x dx = secn−2 x sec2 x dx
Using integration by parts:

u = secn−2 x
dv = sec2 x dx
du = (n − 2) secn−3 x sec x tan x dx
= (n − 2) secn−2 x tan x dx
v = tan x

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 Z
n−2
In = tan x sec x − (n − 2) secn−2 x tan2 x dx
Z
= tan x secn−2 x − (n − 2) secn−2 x(sec2 x − 1) dx
Z Z
n−2
= tan x sec x − (n − 2) sec x dx + (n − 2) secn−2 x dx
n

= tan x secn−2 x − (n − 2)In + (n − 2)In−2

In + (n − 2)In = tan x secn−2 x + (n − 2)In−2

(n − 1)In = tan x secn−2 x + (n − 2)In−2
1 n−2
In = tan x secn−2 x + In−2
n−1 n−1

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 R R
4. In = cscn x dx = cscn−2 x csc2 x dx
Using integration by parts:

u = cscn−2 x
dv = csc2 x dx
du = (n − 2) cscn−3 x(− csc x cot x) dx
= −(n − 2) cscn−2 x cot x dx
v = − cot x

Z
In = − cot x cscn−2 x − (n − 2) cscn−2 x cot2 x dx
Z
n−2
= − cot x csc cscn−2 x(csc2 x − 1) dx
x − (n − 2)
Z Z
= − cot x cscn−2 x − (n − 2) cscn x dx + (n − 2) cscn−2 x dx

= − cot x cscn−2 x − (n − 2)In + (n − 2)In−2

In + (n − 2)In = − cot x cscn−2 x + (n − 2)In−2

(n − 1)In = − cot x cscn−2 x + (n − 2)In−2
−1 n−2
In = cot x cscn−2 x + In−2
n−1 n−1

R R
5. In = tann x dx = tann−2 x tan2 x dx
Z
In = tann−2 x(sec2 x − 1) dx (27)
Z Z
= tann−2 x sec2 x dx − tann−2 dx (28)
1
In = tann−1 x − In−1 (29)
n−1

R R
6. In = cotn x dx = cotn−2 x cot2 x dx
Z
In = cotn−2 x(csc2 x − 1) dx (30)
Z Z
n−2
= cot x csc x dx − cotn−2 dx
2
(31)
1
In = cotn−1 x − In−1 (32)
n−1

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 R
7. In = (ln x)n dx
Z
In = (ln x)n dx
1
Let u = (ln x)n du = n(ln x)n−1 · dx
x
dv = dx v=x
Z
n 1
In = x(ln x) − x · n(ln x)n−1 · dx
x
Z
n n−1
= x(ln x) − n (ln x) dx

In = x(ln x)n − nIn−1

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