AQA Y1 #4 Cells Notes

3.2.1.1 Structure of Eukaryotic Cells

The structure of eukaryotic cells, restricted to the structure and function of:
- Cell-surface membrane
- Nucleus (containing chromosomes, consisting of protein - bound, linear DNA, and one or more nucleoli)
- Mitochondria
- Chloroplasts (in plants and algae)
- Golgi apparatus and Golgi vesicles
- Lysosomes (a membrane-bound organelle that releases hydrolytic enzymes)
- Ribosomes
- Rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
- Cell wall (in plants, algae and fungi)
- Cell vacuole (in plants).
In complex multicellular organisms, eukaryotic cells become specialised for specific functions.
Specialised cells are organised into tissues, tissues into organs and organs into systems.
Students should be able to apply their knowledge of these features in explaining adaptations of eukaryotic cells.

3.2.1.2 Structure of Prokaryotic Cells and of Viruses

Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells. They also differ from eukaryotic cells in having:
- Cytoplasm that lacks membrane-bound organelles
- Smaller ribosomes
- No nucleus; instead a single circular DNA molecule free in the cytoplasm and is not associated with proteins
- A cell wall that contains murein, a glycoprotein. In addition, many prokaryotic cells have:
- One or more plasmids
- A capsule surrounding the cell
- One or more flagella.
Details of these structural differences are not required.
Viruses are acellular and non-living.
The structure of viruses including genetic material, capsid and attachment protein.

3.2.1.3 Methods of Studying Cells

The principles and limitations of optical microscopes, transmission and scanning electron microscopes.
Measuring the size of an object viewed with an optical microscope.
The difference between magnification and resolution.
Principles of cell fractionation and ultracentrifugation as used to separate cell components.
Students should be able to appreciate that there was a considerable period of time during which the scientific
community distinguished between artefacts and cell organelles.

AT d use of light microscope at high power and low power, including use of a graticule
AT e produce scientific drawing from observation with annotations
MS 1.8 Make order of magnitude calculations
Use of the formula: magnification = size of image / size of real object

TASK: Produce scientific drawings of the cheek and leaf cell

1
On paper, students must produce a scientific drawing of the highlighted cells as seen under a light microscope.

TASK: Produce a scientific drawing of the leaf cross section

On paper, students must produce a scientific drawing of the highlighted section shown in the field of view.

Show students the drawing rules and demonstrate how each image would be drawn and annotated.

Rules for Microscope Drawings:

• Always use a pencil
• Use a ruler to draw label lines which do NOT cross and do NOT have arrow heads!
• Write the magnification next to your drawing or include a scale bar where possible. As a minimum, the
combined magnification of the eyepiece and objective lens should be written (see later notes)
• Draw what you see…..not what you think you should draw (no textbook pictures)
• Try and keep things the same relative size
• Do not draw individual cells unless you are asked to do so…

Learn the skills correctly now… apply throughout the course… be ready for exam questions…

2
Using a Light (Optical) Microscope
Explain the principles of a light microscope:
Light microscopes work by passing light through a slide with a specimen on it; “specimens” are “things” which we
observe under a microscope; they may be whole structures such as moss leaves, hairs or pollen grains, or sections
3
of larger organisms such as plant cells from the tips of growing roots. Denser parts of the specimen absorb more
stain, so let less light through and appear darker; less dense parts of the specimen absorb less stain, so let more
light through and appear lighter. An image taken from a light microscope is known as a photomicrograph.

Setting up the Microscope

Always pick up the microscope by the handle and carry it with one hand under the base
Place in front of you, with the eyepiece angled towards you
Make sure you have the smallest objective lens clicked in place
If there is a mirror, move the mirror until you have a good amount of light (never point it at the sun)

➔ Label the diagram below using the following labels; stage clips, eyepiece lens, objective lenses, stage,
coarse adjustment knob and fine adjustment knob.

Preparing a slide to observe with a light microscope

To view a specimen under a microscope, the specimen must be:
- Thin, to allow light through

4
 - Flat; if it is not flat, it will not be fully focussed when you try to view it because different parts of the specimen
will be at different depths (like when your hand appears blurry when you place it in front of your eyes when
looking at a distant object).
- Stained; if it is not already coloured. Since many cell components are transparent, it is difficult to see them.
To overcome this, stains are washed over the slide; this provides contrast so the different parts can be seen

Dry Mount Method; this simple technique is used to observe dry specimens such as hairs or pollen
1) Make a thin slice of the specimen
2) Use tweezers to place the specimen into the middle of a clean slide
3) Carefully lower a cover slip onto the specimen (see diagram below) and observe

Wet Mount Method; this technique involves placing a specimen such as onion skin into water
1) Pipette a small drop of water or stain onto the slide
2) Use tweezers to place a thin slice of the specimen on top of the water drop
3) Carefully lower a coverslip onto the specimen, ensuring air bubbles do not become trapped
4) If required, place a drop of stain next to the edge of the cover slip. Place a paper towel in line with the
opposite edge and draw the stain across the specimen

Artefact or Organelle?
When looking at a prepared sample under a microscope, you can sometimes see things that aren’t part of the
specimen; these are known as artefacts. Artefacts can be dust, air bubbles or fingerprints etc. Artefacts often occur
during the preparation of a sample, so the number of artefacts can be decreased by more careful preparation of
samples. They are common in electron micrographs (especially in samples prepared for viewing using a TEM) due
to the lengthy treatment required to prepare samples.
To distinguish between artefacts and organelles, scientists had to prepare specimens in different ways, using
different techniques; if they saw an object in a specimen prepared using one preparation technique, but not another,
the object was more likely to be an artefact than an organelle. This was a problem for the scientific community
that persisted for a considerable time until preparation techniques and knowledge of organelles improved.

Microscopes and Resolution

Light microscopes have many advantages over other types of microscope:
- They are easy to use by untrained people;
- They are affordable, so more people have access to them;

5
 - They can be used to view live specimens;
- Specimens can be easily prepared on slides for viewing;
- Images can be seen in colour;

But…. Light microscopes have a low resolution (200nm) because the wavelength of light is too long (400nm), so
smaller organelles cannot be observed. Light microscopes can magnify specimens 1500 – 2000 times bigger,
but if we try and increase the magnification (make the specimen appear bigger), it just becomes blurry.

The resolution of measuring equipment is the smallest increment it can measure; with a microscope, the
resolution is the minimum distance required between two things for them to be seen as separate. A light
microscope cannot “resolve” anything closer together than 200nm since this is its resolution; the cell surface
membrane and nucleus are seen as two separate structures because there is more than 200nm between them.

Inventing a new microscope…

By 1900, all the organelles which could be seen using a light microscope, had been identified. Biologists assumed
that they could never see anything smaller than 200nm…and then Scientists discovered that electrons orbiting the
nucleus of an atom can become free of their orbits when a metal is heated and travel in waves just like light… The
shorter wavelength of the electrons means that the images they produce, have a higher resolution than light
microscopes. The negative charge of electrons means they can easily be focussed using electromagnets.

Electron Microscopes
Explain the principles of a transmission electron microscope:
Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) record the electrons transmitted through the specimen onto
photographic paper to produce an image known as an electronmicrograph; where no organelles block the
electrons, the electrons are transmitted onto the electron micrograph, which appears white (the film has been
“exposed” to the electrons); where organelles have blocked the passage of the electron beam the paper is black.

6
TEMs can magnify cells x 500,000 – 2,000,000 bigger and they have a very high resolution of 0.05 – 2 nm, but….
- All specimens being viewed must be in a vacuum (so that air particles do not obstruct the movement of the
electrons) and therefore must be dead.
- TEMs require very thin sections
- The images produced are always in black and white (unless colour is added) and only produce 2D images

Explain the principles of a scanning electron microscope:

Scanning electron microscopes send a beam of electrons over the surface of a specimen and record the
electrons reflected from a specimen. They can magnify between x 100,000 – 500,000, have a high resolution of
20nm, don’t require very thin sections and can produce 3D and colour images but ….all specimens being viewed
must be in a vacuum (so that air particles do not obstruct the movement of the electrons) and therefore must be
dead.

Why do organelles of the same type sometimes appear different to each other?
Some organelles of the same type may look very different to each other because:
- Cells are 3D and therefore may be cut in a different plane (transverse or longitudinal cross section)
- Specimens may be distorted when the specimen was prepared

7
Microscopes Summary Table
Microscope Type

Feature Light (optical) Microscope Transmission Electron Scanning Electron

Microscope Microscope

Name of images

Images 2D?

Images 3D? (shows

depth)

Images colour?

Images black and white?

Specimen alive?

Specimen dead?

Specimen thin?

Limit of Resolution

Maximum Magnification

8
Microscopes Summary
TASK: write the properties into the venn diagram
Resolution Limit 200nm
Resolution Limit 0.2nm
Resolution Limit 2nm
Magnification x 1500 - 2000
Magnification x 500, 000 - 2,000,000
Magnification x 100,000 – 500,000
Can observe living specimens
Specimen must be dead
Black and white images
Colour images
Image 3D
Specimen must be thinly sliced
Relatively cheap
Electron micrographs
Photo micrographs

9
Cell Fractionation
Cell fractionation is the separation of organelles to allow cytologists to study the organelles. It involves 2 main
stages:
1) Breaking up of cells (homogenisation) to release the cell components
2) Purification of cell components by (ultracentrifugation)

The tissue is placed in an ice cold, isotonic buffer solution before any fractionation can begin:
- It is cold to reduce activity of enzymes that might breakdown the organelles
- It is isotonic to prevent organelles bursting / shrinking because of osmotic gain or damage
- There is a buffer to maintain a constant pH

Homogenisation
Cells are broken up by a homogeniser (blender) which releases the cell components. The homogenate may then
be filtered to remove any complete cells or debris

Ultracentrifugation
The filtrate is spun slowly at first, causing denser cell components (nuclei) to form into pellet A; the fluid at the top
(supernatant) is removed and placed in another tube and spun again at a slightly higher speed, forcing the
mitochondria to the bottom of the tube in pellet B; his process is continued so that at each increase in speed the
next heaviest organelle is separated out (lysosomes and then finally ribosomes) pellet C

Eukaryotic Cell Ultrastructure (“fine” structure)

10
The workings of a shoe factory…
Ask all students to draw a shoe. Use this to explain that there is no such thing as a “general shoe” since
every shoe has a specific function for which it is specially designed. Describe how a “shoe factory” can
produce all of the different shoes, but most probably only make certain types, eg some shoe factories
probably produce trainers whilst some produce boots. All shoe types are different to each other, yet shoes
are all worn on our feet, all are built on a “sole” and all have a mechanism to keep them on our feet, so all
shoes have many similarities…

The workings of a cell…

Proteins are like shoes; they are all different to each other, yet they are all made from amino acids joined
together with peptide bonds and held in a 3D structure…
Cells are like shoe factories, except their function is to produce proteins instead of shoes; just like shoe
factories can produce all shoes but usually only make certain types, cells can produce all of the proteins
found in an organism, but most only make certain types eg some cells secrete hormones and enzymes
(proteins) into the bloodstream; some produce haemoglobin (protein) which stays in the cells and carries
oxygen around the body; and others provide the actin and myosin in our muscles (proteins), which stay
inside the cells to enable the cell to contract…

Cells contain a variety of organelles to help them to make proteins. In the next section, you will learn about the
organelles which have a role in producing proteins, as well as others.

Protein Synthesis Overview

Proteins are made from amino acids joined together in condensation reactions and then “folded” and organised into
a 3D structure:
11
The order in which the amino acids are strung together is determined by the genes found on the DNA inside the
nucleus. The ribosomes found free in the cytoplasm or attached to the surface of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum are responsible for joining the amino acids together into a long chain, producing a polypeptide.
Information about the specific sequence of amino acids must be transferred from the DNA to the ribosomes since
the DNA cannot leave the nucleus. Cells therefore make a “copy” of the DNA called messenger RNA (mRNA).
This moves to a ribosome (either free in the cytoplasm or attached to endoplasmic reticulum) which uses the
information to join amino acids together in a specific order, making the protein. The protein may then be moved to the
golgi body in a vesicle for modification. The destination of the protein determines where it heads next; intracellular
proteins remain in the cytoplasm whilst extracellular proteins move to the cell surface membrane for secretion into
the bloodstream via vesicles.

Cell Organelles
“Organelle” is the term used to describe the components found inside cells; some are membrane-bound, others
are not. The enzymes, substrates and structures inside membrane bound organelles is separated from the
surrounding cytoplasm so they can carry out their roles efficiently; this division of labour is compartmentalisation.

12
Organelle Description and Function (s)

Nucleus … is a large, spherical structure which stains intensely…

… contains linear DNA bound to histone proteins…
… is bound by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope
/ membrane which has large nuclear pores to control the
passage of molecules, eg mRNA ….
…contains at least one or more nucleoli where rRNA is made…

… the nucleus stores the genetic information for production of

RNA molecules; mRNA and tRNA for protein synthesis and
rRNA for ribosomes
… the nucleus is the site of DNA replication…

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum … is made up of a system of flattened membrane sacs studded

with ribosomes…

… RER has ribosomes attached to its surface, giving a “rough”

appearance…

… the role of the RER is to provide a large surface area for the
synthesis of proteins AND provide a pathway for the transport
of proteins throughout the cell…

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum … lacks ribosomes on its surface and is more tubular in
appearance...

… is involved in the synthesis and storage of lipids…

Golgi Body / Apparatus … it appears as a stack of membranes, that make up flattened

sacs or cisternae, with small, spherical structures called
vesicles…

…the role of the golgi is to modify, transport and store lipids

and proteins and form vesicles…

13
 …Golgi vesicles are formed when modified proteins are
surrounded by golgi membrane and “pinch off” from the ends…

Lysosomes …“lysosomes” are vesicles produced by the golgi which carry

hydrolytic enzymes…

… lysosomes engulf damaged organelles or fuse with other

vesicles and digest the contents with their hydrolytic
enzymes…
… lysosomes release enzymes to the outside of the cell
(exocytosis) to destroy material outside the cell…
… lysosomes completely break down the cells after they have
died…

Mitochondria … are rod - shaped

… they have a double membrane that is selectively
permeable…the inner membrane is highly folded into cristae, to
increase the surface area for respiratory reactions…
… the enclosed cytoplasm is known as the matrix; it contains
proteins, lipids, ribosomes and DNA, so they can produce their
own proteins …

… are specialised to carry out aerobic respiration, therefore are

responsible for the production of ATP…
… release energy from respiratory substrates eg glucose to …
make ATP so are more numerous in active tissues…

Ribosomes … are composed of proteins and rRNA ...

… are found attached to the surface of ER (forming rough ER)
or free in the cytoplasm…

… Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis…

… mRNA binds to ribosomes which catalyse the formation of
peptide bonds between amino acids…

14
Cell surface membrane / Plasma membrane … the cell surface membrane is the name given specifically to
the membrane that surrounds the cell…
… is composed mainly of phospholipids arranged in a bilayer,
with hydrophobic tails pointing inwards and hydrophilic heads
on the outside making a very thin membrane…

… forms a barrier to charged or large molecules which can only

pass across via specific channel or carrier proteins… this is
why it is described as selectively permeable…
… compartmentalises reactants…
… involved in cell recognition…

Cellular Components found ONLY in Plant Cells

Cell wall … is composed of microfibrils of cellulose…

… each cellulose microfibril has considerable tensile
strength…
… surrounds the plasma membrane of all plant cells…
… is freely permeable…
… a thin layer, the middle lamella, is between adjacent cell
walls and cements them together… plasmodesmata
connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cell walls where there is
no cell wall or cell surface membrane between them…
15
 … the cell wall provides mechanical strength to each
individual cell to prevent the cell bursting when water
((Note algae cell walls are made up of cellulose or enters by osmosis…
glycoprotein or a mixture of both whilst fungal … to give mechanical strength to the whole plant…
cell walls do NOT contain cellulose but a
nitrogen-containing polysaccharide known as
chitin).

Chloroplasts … are organelles inside most plant cells, which are

responsible for carrying out photosynthesis …
… are surrounded by a double membrane which is
selectively permeable…
… encloses cytoplasm known as stroma…
… stroma contains “grana”, a complex system of
membranes known as “thylakoids”, enclosing the
thylakoid lumen… their large surface area means they can
absorb the maximum amount of sunlight, needed for
photosynthesis…
…contain both DNA and ribosomes to synthesise their own
proteins…
…contain starch grains within the stroma…

Cell Differentiation
Single-celled organisms can out all functions to ensure the organism survives; they do not, however, specialise in
anything and therefore are not totally efficient at every job… One activity may be best carried by a long, thin cell and
another might suit a spherically-shaped cell. Paramecium are single-celled organisms. They release energy, contract,
move, reproduce, produce waste, feed……they are not totally efficient at every job.

16
All cells in a multicellular organism are initially identical, but as they mature, each cell takes on its own
characteristics that suit it to the function it will perform. This is known as cell differentiation.

All cells in an organism are derived from mitotic divisions of the fertilised egg. They therefore all contain the same
genes. So how does the cell differentiate?
Every cell contains the genes necessary for it to develop into any cell within the organism because we have all the
genes for doing every job. When cells mature some genes are switched “on” whilst other genes are switched
“off”. They may also gain more of one type of organelle. Cells therefore become “specialised” at carrying out some
functions and lose the ability to carry out other functions. Since other cells within the organism can carry out these
other functions more effectively, this is not a problem; they are dependent on each other to perform the activities that
they cannot. Specialisation means the whole organism functions very effectively.

Specialised Cells
All cells have a specific function to carry out. As they mature, they differentiate, becoming specialised to carry out a
particular function effectively. During differentiation, each cell becomes adapted by switching certain genes “on” or
“off” and by acquiring different amounts of each organelle.

Small Intestine Epithelial Cells: These cells have lots of RER for the secretion of proteins (enzymes) and
microvilli to increase the surface area for absorption of soluble food particles into the cell.
Liver Cells: These cells have lots of mitochondria to release energy needed for biosynthesis, lots of free
ribosomes to make enzymes and lots of ER (rough and smooth) for synthesising proteins and lipids and steroid
hormones.
Plasma Cell from the Bone Marrow: The function of a plasma cell is to secrete massive amounts of antibodies into
the bloodstream when a pathogen has entered the body. It is adapted for this role by the presence of significant
amounts of RER for synthesising proteins
Nuclear Envelope: Large pores can be seen in the nuclear envelope, using a scanning electron microscope
17
Tissues, Organs and Organ Systems
In multicellular organisms, specialised cells perform specific functions; a tissue is a group of similar cells working
together to carry out a particular function. An organ is a group of tissues working together to carry out a particular
function and an organ system is a group of organs working together in a unit.

➔ For each example organ below, use the diagram to name the different tissues which work together to enable
each organ to carry out its function:

Example 1: The small intestine is an

animal organ adapted for the absorption
of food into the bloodstream and keeps
food moving through the gut
Ciliated epithelium increase the surface
area for food absorption; muscle tissue
contracts to help to move the food;
connective tissue includes the blood,
necessary to absorb the nutrients
18
 Example 2: The leaf is a plant organ
which carries out photosynthesis
Epithelial tissue covers the top and
bottom, providing a waterproof layer to
prevent water loss; guard cells change
shape to open stomata, allowing gases
to exchange; vascular tissue brings
water for photosynthesis and transports
sucrose to other parts of the plant;
palisade tissue contains many
chloroplasts to absorb sunlight for
photosynthesis

Example 3: The lungs are responsible for

gas exchange
Squamous epithelial tissue is allows for
efficient gas exchange in the alveoli;
goblet cells between ciliated epithelial
tissue in the bronchi produce and
sweep mucus to the throat; connective
tissue (vascular) brings a blood supply
to collect oxygen and deposit carbon
dioxide; elastic connective tissue
enables alveoli to stretch and recoil

Organ Systems
Organs work together to form organs systems. These systems work together to perform a particular function more
efficiently. Organs systems in humans include:

19
Prokaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells contain a “true” nucleus and membrane bound organelles and tend to be MUCH larger than
prokaryotic cells. Plants, animals, fungi and protoctists are all made from eukaryotic cells. Bacteria are the only
group of living organisms made from prokaryotic cells. Since they are the only group of living organisms made from
prokaryotic cells, they are often called “prokaryotes”.

The main difference between the two types of cells is that the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells does not contain
membrane bound organelles. This means that they do not contain a nucleus, RER, SER, golgi or vesicles.
Prokaryotes also have smaller ribosomes and circular DNA, which is free in the cytoplasm and not associated
with proteins.

20
The prokaryotic cell wall is made from murein, a glycoprotein and they may also have:
- Small pieces of circular DNA referred to as plasmids
- A capsule surrounding the cell, which protects from drying out and helps them stick together for further
protection
- One or more flagellum for movement

Viruses
Viruses are acellular which means not made of cells; they are also described as
non-living because they cannot reproduce on their own, have no metabolism,
cannot move / respire. Viruses consist of genetic material, which codes for
viral proteins, surrounded by a protein capsid to protect the genetic material.
They often have attachment proteins to attach to receptors on cells.
NOTE: akaryotic is sometimes used to describe viruses, and any other cell which

does NOT contain a nucleus

21
Compare and contrast Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells
➔ Complete the Venn Diagram using the facts below (and any of your own) to compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Smaller
Larger
Cell surface membrane
Murein cell wall
DNA contained in a nucleus
Smaller ribosomes
Larger ribosomes
Ribosomes
Plasmids
Linear DNA
Circular DNA
Cytoplasm
No ER
ER
No nucleus
Nucleus
No Golgi
Golgi
No mitochondria
Mitochondria

22
Calculating Magnification
Order of Magnitude
TASK: Order of magnitude starter task
When comparing the relative size of a human and a blue whale, the blue whale is about 10 times bigger than the
human; they differ in size by a whole “order of magnitude”; if two things differ by two orders of magnitude, they
differ by a factor of about 100.

As things get smaller and smaller or bigger and bigger, the numbers can become difficult to manage…. As we zoom
in on the thumb we see the lines between the fingerprint, then the skin cells, then the cell components within the
cell…. If we used the same unit to measure each part, the number would become incredibly small and difficult to
manage… We can write the number in standard form, or we can convert the units; a ribosome is 0.0002mm long or 2
x 10-4mm long or 0.2µm long.

Converting Units
When measuring images in Biology always measure in mm and NEVER cm. This makes the maths much easier…
Look at the diagram below. It shows you how to convert from one unit into another. You will notice that centimetres
are not included in the chart because they complicate the maths. All conversions involve multiplying by 1000 to
change an answer from large to small units and dividing by 1000 to change an answer from small to large units

To convert from m2 to mm2, you would multiply by 10002; to convert from m3 to mm3, you would multiply by 10003
TASK: Converting Units (in booklet)
TASK: M0.1 Units in Calculations w/s pages 1 and 2 (homework)
TASK: Cells and Scaling Activity (using symbols)
Extension: cards sequencing activity

Calculating Magnification Introduction

23
Stick a board pen to the whiteboard with blue tac. Draw an image of the board pen 5 times bigger than the pen (draw
a small mark on the board and then use the pen 5 times before making another mark and repeat with the width). Put
the pen back and explain to students that this is the actual pen and this is the image. How many times bigger is the
image than the actual? x 5. This is the magnification of the image. Ask students how they worked it out?
Magnification = image / actual. Draw a second one without using the pen. How many times has this image been
magnified? Lead students to understand that they can measure instead and then use the same equation.

Since nearly all cells are too small to be seen with the naked eye, when we see images of them they have obviously
been magnified (drawn larger than they actually are). Animal cells can be seen in the field of view below. If you
were asked to make a scientific drawing of them, the image you produce would be bigger than the actual cells, but
what is it’s magnification? To calculate it you will need to know the image size (which you can get from measuring)
and the actual size of the cell. How will you get this? You may be given this value in the exam, but sometimes you
might have to work it out for yourself using an eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer.

Rearranging Equations
You will need to learn the following equation: Magnification = Image ÷ Actual
➔ Write the equation into a triangle in the space below and rearrange it to complete the 3 equations on the right:

Magnification =

Image =

Actual =

Magnification Calculations
Q1) This human egg cell has been magnified 5000 times.
Calculate the actual size of the egg and write your answer in mm
24
A=I/M
50mm / 5000 = 0.01mm
(50,000 / 5000 = 10 µm)

Q2) A Giraffe Neurone is approximately 4.5 mm in length. Calculate the magnification of this image:

M=I/A
79 mm / 4.5 mm = 17.5

Q3) This red blood cell has been magnified 6250 times.
Calculate the actual width of the red blood cell and write your answer in mm

A=I/M
50 / 6250 = 0.008 mm

Q4) A smooth muscle cell is approximately 0.01mm wide. Calculate the magnification of one cell:

M=I/A
5 / 0.01 = 500

5) The diagram shows a cholera bacterium. It has been magnified 50 000 times.

Actual = Image ÷ Magnification

The line is 22mm = 22000µm
22000 ÷ 50000 = 0.44µm
(2)
25
Calculate the actual width of the cholera bacterium between points B and C.
Give your answer in micrometres and show your working

6) The diagram shows an epithelial cell from the small intestine. This diagram shows the cell magnified 1000 times.
Calculate the actual length of the cell between points P and Q. Give your answer in µm. Show your working.

Actual = Image ÷ Magnification

The distance is 90 mm = 90000µm
90000 ÷ 1000 = 90µm
(2)

7) The diagram shows an animal cell:

The scale bar represents a length of 20µm.

Use this to calculate the magnification of the diagram.
Show your working:

Magnification = Image ÷ Actual

Image = 60mm = 60000 µm
60000 ÷ 20 = x 3000

Magnification: ………………………………………… 20m

8) The diagram below shows the general structure of an animal cell as seen under the electron microscope:

26
 5m

a) Calculate the magnification factor (magnification)

The line 5m is 20 mm long. So 20000m = 5m
Magnification is 20000 ÷ 5 = x 4000.
b) Calculate the actual length of structure G
Length of G is 13mm = 13000m
Magnification is x 4000
Actual size is 13000 ÷ 4000 = 3.25m
c) Calculate the actual diameter of the nucleolus
Diameter is 8mm = 8000m
Magnification is x 4000
Actual size is 8000 ÷ 4 000 = 2m
d) Calculate the actual diameter of the nucleus
Diameter is 39mm = 39000m
Magnification is x 4000
Actual size is 39 000 ÷ 4000 = 9.75m
e) Calculate the actual diameter of the cell at its widest point
121mm = 121000m = 121000 ÷ 4000 = 30.25m
For all the answers above there is a tolerance limit of + or – 0.5mm, so + or – 0.1 – 0.2 m

Further Magnification Questions

A cell biologist was studying the different densities of ribosomes on the surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum. The
electron micrograph below shows a random section of rough endoplasmic reticulum, clearly showing the ribosomes on
the surface. The magnification of the image is x 100,000.

27
a) Calculate the density of ribosomes on the rough ER surface. Give your answer in ribosomes µm-2 (3)

44 mm = 44,000 μm = 44,000,000 nm / 4.4 x 107 nm

65 mm = 65,000 μm = 65,000,000 nm / 6.5 x 107 nm
A = I / M = 4.4 x 107 nm / 1.0 x 105 nm = 4.4 x 102 nm = 440 nm
A = I / M = 6.5 x 107 nm / 1.0 x 105 nm = 6.5 x 102 nm = 650 nm
440 x 650 = 286,000 nm2 = 0.286 μm2
14 / 0.286 μm2 = 48.95 = 49 stomata μm-2

OR

14 stomata
44 x 65 = 2860 mm2
2860 mm2/ (100,0002) = 2.87 x 10-7 mm2 = 2.87 x 10-1 μm2 = 0.287 μm2
14 / 0.286 μm2 = 48.95 = 49 stomata μm-2

## ADD 3D question???? ##

28