Chapte

r1
Cell structure
BIologY CamBrIdge – ABBS hIgh school
surakarta
 learnIng
You should be ableoutcomes:
to:
 Describe and compare the structure of animal, plant, and bacterial
cells, and
discuss the non cellular nature of viruses.
 Describe the use of light microscopes and electron microscopes to
study cells.
 Draw and measure cell structures.
 Discuss the variety of cell structures and their functions.
 Describe the organization of cells into tissues and organs.
 Outline the role of ATP in cells.
 THE CELL THEORY

Robert Hooke

• Until microscopes became powerful enough to view individual cells,

no-one knew for certain what living organisms were made from.
• A scientist called Robert Hooke is thought to be the first person to
view
cells (including single-celled microorganisms) and Hooke also came
up with the term "cells" to describe these newly discovered
 THE CELL THEORY
• Matthias Schleiden and Theodor
Schwann were two other scientists who
studied animal and plant cells.
• In 1837, they came up with the idea
that all
living organisms are made of cells.
• This idea is known as ‘cell Matthias Theodor
(it is universally accepted).
theory’. Schleiden Schwann
• The
• The
cell cell
theory includes
theory three main
is a unifying
ideas:
concept in biology
• All living organisms are made up
of one or
more cells.
• Cells are the basic functional unit
(i.e. the basic unit of structure and
Rudolf
organization) in living organisms.
Virchow Virchow demonstrated the first
• New cells are produced from pre-
evidence of cell division.
existing cells.
 MIcrosco
pY
• Microscopes can be used to analyze cell components and observe organelles
• Magnification and resolution are two scientific terms that are very important to
understand
and distinguish between when answering questions about microscopy (the use
of microscopes):
• Magnification tells you how many times bigger the image produced by
the microscope is than the real-life object you are viewing
• Resolution is the ability to distinguish between objects that are close
together
• There are two main types of microscopes:
• Optical microscopes (sometimes known as light microscopes)
• Electron microscopes

Light Microscope Electron Microscope

Uses light as a source of Uses electron as a source of
radiation. radiation.
LIght
mIcroscope
• Optical microscopes use light
to
form an image
• This limits the resolution of
optical microscopes
• This means optical
microscopes have a
maximum resolution of
around 0.2 micrometers
(µm) or 200 nm
• The maximum useful
magnification of
optical microscopes is
about ×1500
 magnIfIcat
Ion is how many times
• Magnification
bigger the image of a specimen
observed is in compared to the
actual (real-life) size of the
specimen
• A light microscope has two types
of lens:
• An eyepiece lens, which
often has a magnification of
x10
• A series of (usually 3)
objective lenses, each
with a different
magnification
• To calculate the total
magnification the magnification
of the eyepiece lens and the
objective lens are multiplied
magnIfIcatIon
 magnIfIcat
Ioncan be calculated if both the size of
The magnification (M) of an object
the image (I), and the actual size of the specimen (A), is known
MIcroscopY and measurement
Measurement
EXerCISe
 EXerCISe

1
)
 EXerCISe
2
)
 EXerCI
3 Se The real size of the cell
) is 80 µm. What is the
magnification used for
this image?

60
mm
 MEASURING
CELLS
• Cells and organelles can be measured with a microscope by means of an eyepiece
graticule. This is a
transparent scale, usually has 100 divisions.
• The eyepiece gracticule is placed in the microscope eyepiece so that it can be seen
at the same time as object to be measured.
• To calibrate the eyepiece graticule scale, a miniature transparent ruler called a stage
micrometer
scale is placed on the microscope stage and is brought into focus.
ReSolutI
on
• Resolution is the ability to distinguish between two separate points
• If two separate points cannot be resolved, they will be observed as one point
• The resolution of a light microscope is limited by the wavelength of light
• Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution and magnification than a
light microscope as
electrons have a much smaller wavelength than visible light
 ReSolutI
on
• The maximum resolution of a light microscope is 200 nm. This means that if two points
or objects are closer
together than 200 nm they cannot be distinguished as separate.
• The maximum resolution of an electron microscope is 0.5 nm.
• If an object is any smaller than half the wavelength of the radiation used to
view it, it cannot be seen separately from nearby objects.
• This means that the best resolution that can be obtained using a microscope that uses
visible light (a light microscope) is 200 nm, since the shortest wavelength of visible light is
400 nm (violet light).
eleCtron
mICroSCope
• Electron microscopes use electrons to form an
image
• This greatly increases the resolution of electron
microscopes compared to optical microscopes,
giving a more detailed image
• Electron microscopes have a maximum resolution
of around 0.0002 µm or 0.2 nm (i.e. around 1000
times greater than that of optical microscopes)
• The maximum useful magnification of electron
microscopes is
about ×1,500,000
• There are two types of electron microscopes:
• Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs)
• Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs)
TranSmISSIon eleCtron
mICroSCopeS (TEMS)
• TEMs use electromagnets to focus a
beam of
electrons
• This beam of electrons is
transmitted through the
specimen
• Denser parts of the specimen
absorb more electrons
• Advantages of TEMs:
• They give high-resolution
images (more detail)
• This allows the internal structures
within cells (or even within
organelles) to be seen
• Disadvantages of TEMs:
• They can only be used with very
thin specimens or thin sections
of the object being observed
• They cannot be used to
observe live specimens TEMs micrograph image of
• They do not produce a color nerve fibers.
SCannIng eleCtron
mICroSCopeS (SEMS)
• SEMs scan a beam of electrons
across the
specimen
• This beam bounces off the
surface of the specimen and the
electrons are detected, forming an
image
• Advantages of SEMs:
• They can be used on thick or
3-
D specimens
• They allow the external, 3-D
structure of specimens to be
observed
• Disadvantages of SEMs:
• They give lower resolution
images (less detail) than TEMs
• They cannot be used to SEMs
SEMsmicrograph
micrographimage
imageof
of
pollen grains.
water bear.
observe live specimens (unlike
optical microscopes that can be
used to observe live specimens)
 The ComparISon Between TEMS
and SEMS
TEMs SEMs
The beam of electrons is passed The electron beam is used to
through the specimen before scan the surfaces of structures,
being viewed. and only the reflected beam is
observed.
Only those electrons that are A three-dimensional
transmitted (pass through the appearance is achieved.
specimen) are seen.
This allows us to see thin sections of
specimens, and thus to see inside cells.
The ComparISon Between lIght mICroSCopeS,
TEMS, and SEMS
The ComparISon Between lIght mICroSCope and
eleCtron mICroSCope
The ComparISon Between lIght and eleCtron
mICroSCope
MInd map of Cell
StruCtureS
 THE STRUCTURE OF A GENERALISED ANIMAL
CELL & PLANT CELL

Structure of a generalized animal cell (diameter Structure of a generalized plant cell (diameter
about 20 µm) as seen with a very high quality about 40 μm) as seen with a very high quality
light microscope. light microscope
 AnImal and plant CellS have featureS In
Common
(uSIng lIght mICroSCope)

Mitochond Nucleus
ria to carry
Specialized The deeply staining
material in
out aerobic
the nucleus is called
respiration chromatin it contains DNA

Cytopla Golgi Apparatus

sm Part of a complex internal
sorting and
An
aqueous distribution system within the
(watery) cell can be seen by using
material
special stains containing
Cell wall

• The cell wall is freely permeable to most substances (unlike the plasma
membrane).
• Cell walls are formed outside of the cell membrane and offer structural support to
bacterial
cell. EMMssmmicicroroggr
• Structural
Narrow
cells. threads of cytoplasm
support is provided(surrounded by a cell membrane)
by the polysaccharide cellulose called
in plants, and
p h
a p him a
im ageeoof
plasmodesmata
peptidoglycan inconnect
most the cytoplasm of neighbouring plant cells.
wolaletn
Cell SurfaCe memBrane

• All cells are surrounded by a cell surface membrane which controls the exchange
of materials
between the internal cell environment and the external environment.
• The membrane is described as being ‘partially permeable’.
• The cell membrane is formed from a phospholipid bilayer of phospholipids
spanning a diameter of around 10 nm.
NuCleuS

• The nucleus of a cell contains chromatin (a complex of DNA and histone proteins)
which is the genetic material of the cell. The nucleus regulates the activities of
the cell.
• Present in all eukaryotic cells, the nucleus is relatively large and separated from
the cytoplasm by a double membrane (the nuclear envelope) which has many
pores.
• Usually, at least one or more darkly stained regions can be observed – these
regions are individually
MItoChondrIa

• The site of aerobic respiration within eukaryotic cells, mitochondria are just visible with
a light microscope.
• Surrounded by double-membrane with the inner membrane folded to form cristae.
• The matrix formed by the cristae contains enzymes needed for aerobic respiration,
producing ATP.
• Small circular pieces of DNA (mitochondrial DNA) and ribosomes are also found in the
matrix (needed for replication).
ChloroplaSt

• Chloroplasts are found in the green parts of a plant – the green color a result of the
photosynthetic pigment
chlorophyll.
• Larger than mitochondria, also surrounded by a double-membrane.
• Membrane-bound compartments called thylakoids containing chlorophyll stack to form
structures called grana.
• Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis.
• Also contain small circular pieces of DNA and ribosomes used to synthesize proteins needed
RIBoSoMe

• Ribosomes are formed in the nucleolus and are composed of almost equal amounts of
RNA and protein.
• Found freely in the cytoplasm of all cells or as part of the rough endoplasmic reticulum
in eukaryotic cells.
• Each ribosome is a complex of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins.
• 80S ribosomes (composed of 60S and 40S subunits) are found in eukaryotic cells.
• 70S ribosomes (composed of 50S and 30S subunits) in prokaryotes, mitochondria
Rough EndoplaSMIC retICuluM (RER)

• The RER and ER are visible under the electron microscope - the presence or
absence of ribosomes helps to distinguish between them.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
• Surface covered in ribosomes.
• Formed from continuous folds of membrane continuous with the nuclear envelope.
• Processes as well as transports proteins made by the ribosomes.
SMooth EndoplaSMIC retICuluM (ER)

• The RER and ER are visible under the electron microscope - the presence or
absence of ribosomes helps to distinguish between them.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Does not have ribosomes on the surface, its function is distinct to the RER.
• Involved in the production, processing and storage of lipids, carbohydrates and
steroids.
GolgI ApparatuS (GolgI
CoMpleX)
• Flattened sacs of membrane similar
to the
smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
• Modifies proteins and
lipids before packaging
them into Golgi
vesicles.
• The vesicles then transport the
proteins and lipids to their
required destination.
• Proteins that go through the
Golgi apparatus are usually
exported (e.g. hormones such as
veSICle
• Membrane-bound sac for transport and
storage.
LYSoSo
Me
• Specialist forms of vesicles which contain hydrolytic enzymes (enzymes that
break biological molecules down).
• Break down waste materials such as worn-out organelles, used extensively by
cells of the immune system and in apoptosis (programmed cell death).
Large perManent
vaCuole
• Sac in plant cells surrounded by the tonoplast, selectively
permeable membrane.
• Vacuoles in animal cells are not permanent and small.
CentrIo
leHollow fibres made of
•
microtubules, two centrioles at
right angles to each other form a
centrosome, which organizes
the spindle fibres during cell
division.
• Not found in flowering plants and
fungi
MICrotuB
ule
• Makes up the cytoskeleton of the cell
about 25 nm in diameter.
• Made of α and β tubulin combined
to form dimers, the dimers are then
joined into protofilaments.
• Thirteen protofilaments in a
cylinder
make a microtubule.
• The cytoskeleton is used to
provide support and movement of
the cell.
MICroVILLI

• Cell membrane projections that increase the surface area

for absorption.
CILI
a

• Hair-like projections made from microtubules.

• Allows the movement of substances over the
cell surface.
fLageLLa

• Similar in structure to cilia, made of longer

microtubules.
• Contract to provide cell movement for example in
sperm cells.
ULtraStruCture of anIMaL CeLL
ULtraStruCture of pLant CeLL
ProkarYotIC
CeLLS
• Animal and plant cells are types
of eukaryotic cells, whereas bacteria
are a type of prokaryote
• Prokaryotic cells are much smaller
than eukaryotic cells (between 100
- 1000 times smaller)
• They also differ from eukaryotic
cells in having:
• A cytoplasm that lacks
membrane-bound
organelles
• Their ribosomes are structurally
smaller (70 S) in comparison to
those found in eukaryotic cells (80 S)
• No nucleus (instead they have a
single circular DNA molecule
that is free in the cytoplasm and
is not associated with
proteins)
AddItIonaL StruCtureS unIque to prokarYotIC
CeLLS
ProkarYotIC VS eukarYotIC CeLLS
ProkarYotIC VS eukarYotIC CeLLS
anIMaL VS pLant CeLLS
 VIruSeS
• Viruses are non-cellular infectious
particles that straddle the boundary
between ‘living’ and ‘non- living’.
• They are relatively simple in structure;
much smaller than prokaryotic cells
(with diameters between 20 and 300
nm).
• Structurally they have:
• A nucleic acid core (their genomes
are either DNA or RNA, and can be
single or double- stranded).
• A protein coat called a ‘capsid’.
• Some viruses have an outer layer
called an envelope formed usually from
the membrane- phospholipids of a
cell they were made in.
• All viruses are parasitic in that they can
only reproduce by infecting living cells and
using their protein-building machinery
(ribosomes) to produce new viral particles.
 The roLe of ATP In
•CeLLS
All organisms require a constant
supply of energy to maintain their
cells and stay alive.
• In all known forms of life, ATP from
respiration is used to transfer
energy in all
energy-requiring processes in cells.
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is
the energy- carrying molecule that
provides the energy to drive many
processes inside living cells.
• ATP is another type of nucleic
The
end
anY
queStIonS?
 OUT LIneS for
CHAPTER 1 teSt
• Cell theory
• Magnification calculation
• Electron microscopes advantage & disadvantage
• Comparison of light and electron microscopes
• Function of cell organelles
• Illustration of eukaryotic cell, you need to identify
the parts, characteristics, and functions
• Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.