I.

HARDWARE
Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer, i.e. the components that can be
seen and touched. All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the
following five basic operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.

No. Operation Description

1 Take Input The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.

Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing as and when
2 Store Data
required.

Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to convert them into
3 Processing Data
useful information.

Output The process of producing useful information or results for the user, such as a
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Information printed report or visual display.

Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are
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workflow performed.

From this diagram, hardware can be categorized into four;

1) Input Devices
These are hardware devices used for sending data into the computer for processing. This unit creates a link
between the user and the computer. The input devices translate the data into a form understandable by the
computer. Examples are; Keyboard, Mouse, Joy Stick, Light pen, Track Ball, Scanner, Graphic Tablet,
Microphone, Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR), Optical Character Reader(OCR), Bar Code Reader,
Optical Mark Reader(OMR), etc.

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 a) Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the computer.
The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys
provided for performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are
also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are divided into four groups; the function keys, the alpha-numeric keys, the
numeric keys and the cursor control keys. In terms of the connecting port we can have USB, serial, PS/2
and wireless keyboard. Equally, we also have types of keyboards based on languages such as
English(QWERTY), French(AZERTY), etc keyboards.

b) Mouse

Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm
size box with a round ball or light at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and sends
corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between the
buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to
enter text into the computer.

Advantages

 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

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 c) Scanner

Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for further
manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can be stored
on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed. There are different types of scanners i.e.
flat bed, handheld, etc.

2) Processing Devices
These are hardware devices used in converting data into information. An example is the CPU. CPU
performs all types of data processing operations. It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions
(program). It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

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 a. Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to other units
of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary
storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of
memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

b. Control Unit

This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.
Functions of this unit are −
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the
computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.

c. ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section

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 Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and
merging of data.

3) Output Unit

The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from the computer. This
unit is a link between the computer and the users. Output devices translate the computer's output into a
form understandable by the users. Examples of output devices are, Monitors, Graphic Plotter, Printers,
speakers, projectors, etc.

a. Monitors

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a computer. It
forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the
image depends upon the number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat-Panel Display
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the
image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as the
letter ‗e‘ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series
of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens
are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT − Large in Size and High power consumption

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Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power
requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current
uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, and graphics
display. Examples of flat panel display monitors are the Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

 Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. For
example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light
from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).

b. Printers

Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper (converting softcopy information
into hardcopy).
There are two types of printers −

 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the paper.
Examples are Dot Matrix Printer(DMP) and Daisy Wheel
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a complete page at
a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.

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These printers are of two types −

 Laser Printers and Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers

 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size

4) Storage Devices

These are hardware devices used in keeping data or information for future use. It is divided into two major
parts; Primary and Secondary

a. Primary Storage devices

These are hardware storage devices capable of keeping information only with the help of power supply.
When supply is terminated, the information is lost. Examples are RAM, CMOS, Cache, etc.

Main Memory (RAM)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently working.
Random access memory being one of them, has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched
off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data
and instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory.
Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories.

 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

b. Secondary Storage Devices

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This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main
memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access these
memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are
first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example, Hard disk drive, CD-
ROM, DVD, USB flash, Magnetic tapes, diskettes, etc.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory:

 These are magnetic and optical memories.

 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

5) The motherboard
The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together. It connects
the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other ports and expansion cards
directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer.

a. Features of Motherboard

A motherboard comes with following features −

 Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.
 Motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
 Video cards, hard disks, sound cards have to be compatible with the motherboard to function
properly.
 Motherboards, cases, and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.

b. Description of Motherboard

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The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws through pre-drilled
holes. Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components. It provides a single socket for
CPU, whereas for memory, normally one or more slots are available. Motherboards provide ports to attach
the floppy drive, hard drive, and optical drives via ribbon cables. Motherboard carries fans and a special
port designed for power supply.
There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound cards, and other
expansion cards can be connected to the motherboard.
On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect the monitor, printer, mouse, keyboard,
speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports, which allow compatible devices to be
connected in plug-in/plug-out fashion. For example, pen drive, digital cameras, etc.

Peripheral Devices: A peripheral device is typically a device that is external to a computer and
connected either wirelessly or via a cable. They can be input, output or storages devices. Examples are
keyboard, mouse, monitor, speaker, usb flash, etc.

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II. NETWORK AND MOBILE DEVICES

a. Network
 Definition: A computer network is a set of computers connected together using protocol for the
purpose of sharing resources. The most common resource shared today is connection to the Internet. Other
shared resources can include a printer, a file server, etc. Networking refers to the total process of creating
and using computer networks. Networks are commonly categorized based on their characteristics.
 Types of Networks
There are several different types of computer networks. Computer networks can be characterized by their
size as well as their purpose. Some of the different networks based on size are:
 Personal area network, or PAN
 Local area network, or LAN
 Metropolitan area network, or MAN
 Wide area network, or WAN
In terms of purpose, we have
 Storage area network, or SAN
 Enterprise private network, or EPN
 Virtual private network, or VPN
We will focus on the types of networks base on size or geographical location.

THE INTERNET
Internet which stands for ―Inter-connecting networks‖ is an interconnection of networks around the
globe using protocols. The first network communication was created by US defence department in 1969.
The network was called Advanced Research Project Agency Network (ARPANET). User network
(USENET) was created in 1972 in the US universities. In 1991 a general layout for the internet was
developed known as World Wide Web (WWW) which provide a common user interface. In fact the
internet is like an electronic city with virtual shops, libraries, offices, art galleries, etc.
 Functions of an Internet
 An internet perform the following
 Send and receive messages
 Share files and data between users
 Publishing of new products
 Buying and selling of products
 Learning, share ideas and dreams
 Connecting a computer to the internet
Internet is usually offered by an internet service provider (ISP). An ISP is an individual or organisation or
company that provide internet access to users for money. Examples of ISPs are AOL, MTN, Orange,
Camtel, AT&T, etc. To select an ISP the speed, account, location and price should be considered. There
are many techniques which can be used to connect a computer to an internet. Some of these are
 Analogue Connection (dial-up): It the connection using a telephone line. It is very slow.

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  ISDN Connection: ISDN stands for integrated service digital network. It is a digital connection
that is error free and very fast.
 DSL Connection: Digital subscriber line (DSL) uses copper telephone lines and is faster than
ISDN and also costly. There are two forms Asynchronous DSL and Synchronous DSL.
 Cable Connection: It is a broadband connection line. It is more costly and has a very high speed
which decreases if many people are using it at a time.
 Wireless Connection: It is a broadband connection using radio frequency. It is always on and very
costly. It can be exercise through satellites, Wi-Fi, etc.
 Internet Services
Internet offers the following services
Voice chatting: This is the act of making voice calls over the internet. It is relatively cheap.
Webcasting: It is the process of broadcasting information over the internet rather than over radios and
televisions. It uses a streaming media technology.
Web conferencing: It is a meeting between two or more people found at different locations over the
internet. Text, audio and video is use in the communication.
E-Learning: It is a form of education where students and teachers communicate over the internet.
E-Commerce: Electronic commerce is the advertising, selling and buying of goods over the internet.
Money is paid by credit cards and some material goods delivered by ships, delivery agents, etc.
Online translation: It is the translation of text into different languages using programs on the internet.
The text to be translated is usually input and the desired output language selected for the translation to
take place.
Online Games: It is the act of playing of games found on the internet. These games are installed on
servers which run the games and when you are connected to the internet you can access them. Some of
them are free while others require payment before access.
Offloading and Downloading: Off-loading is pasting or making a file available on the internet. This is
done by individuals, organizations and companies that want such products to be available for all.
Downloading is copying or removing a copy of a file found on the internet. Some of these files are free
while others you need to pay before making a copy.
E-mail: It stands for electronic mail. It is an electronic message sends over a network such as the internet
from one system to another. In sending, files like pictures, music, programs can be send as attachment to
the text e-mail message. E-mail has the following advantages; it is very fast, it is cheap, it can access the
entire world, can be sent at any time, can be sent to many at a time, easy to make duplicates, can take
attachments. E-mail are send and received with the use of e-mail addresses and passwords. Many
companies offer different e-mail services with different addresses. Examples of companies with their
address formats are yahoo e.g. fkb@yahoo.com, Gmail e.g. crtv@gmail.com, Hotmail e.g.
gbhs@hotmail.com , etc. An e-mail account is the addresses and the ID (identity) that has a storage space
for messages on a mail server. This is done using their URL in web browsers. Account is use to send and
receive messages. Instant messaging is the act of writing and receiving messages instantly or without
delay using e-mail messengers. Some examples of messengers are yahoo messenger, MSN messenger,
AOL instant messenger, etc.

 Problems associated with the Internet

Internet has a vast variety of problems

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 - The absent of organization of material
- Insufficient bandwidth
- Variation of information
- Difficulties and complexity in the connection
- Insufficient security
Also existing are Intranet and Extranet
An intranet is a computer network that uses internet protocol technology to share information and
computing services within an organization. It is a small private network. It is not open to the internet. Only
users from the organisation can use it.
An extranet is a computer network that uses internet protocol technology and public
telecommunication system to securely share information within organisations. It is large private network.
It uses public telecommunication service like the www, protocols, etc.

b. MOBILE DEVICES
A mobile device is a general term for any type of handheld computer. These devices are designed to be
extremely portable, and they can often fit in your hand. Small portable digital mechanisms such as phones
or tablets that provide access to the web, apps, and other software. Some mobile devices are powerful
enough to do many of the same things you can do with a desktop or laptop computer. Mobile devices have
the capability connect to a network and equally utilized it.

Types of mobile devices

 Tablet computers
Like laptops, tablet computers are designed to be portable. However, they provide a different computing
experience. The most obvious difference is that tablet computers don't have keyboards or touchpads.
Instead, the entire screen is touch-sensitive, allowing you to type on a virtual keyboard and use your
finger as a mouse pointer.

Tablet computers can't necessarily do everything traditional computers can do. For many people, a
traditional computer like a desktop or laptop is still needed in order to use some programs. However, the
convenience of a tablet computer means it may be ideal as a second computer.

 E-readers
E-book readers—also called e-readers—are similar to tablet computers, except they are mainly designed
for reading e-books (digital, downloadable books). Notable examples include the Amazon Kindle, Barnes
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& Noble Nook, and Kobo. Most e-readers use an e-ink display, which is easier to read than a traditional
computer display. You can even read in bright sunlight, just like if you were reading a regular book.

You don't need an e-reader to read e-books. They can also be read on tablets, smartphones, laptops, and
desktops.

 Smartphones
A smartphone is a more powerful version of a traditional cell phone. In addition to the same basic
features—phone calls, voicemail, text messaging—smartphones can connect to the Internet over Wi-Fi or
a cellular network (which requires purchasing a monthly data plan). This means you can use a smartphone
for the same things you would normally do on a computer, such as checking your email, browsing the
Web, or shopping online.

Most smartphones use a touch-sensitive screen, meaning there isn't a physical keyboard on the device.
Instead, you'll type on a virtual keyboard and use your fingers to interact with the display. Other standard
features include a high-quality digital camera and the ability to play digital music and video files. For
many people, a smartphone can actually replace electronics like an old laptop, digital music player, and
digital camera in the same device

 Personal Navigation Devices (PND)

These are portable devices specifically built to run Road Navigation applications. This product is the most
popular product with embedded GNSS technology only rivaled by the phone with GNSS technology.
PNDs are becoming redundant with increasing use of smartphones and better affordability of In-Vehicle
Systems (IVS). In fact with smartphone navigation becoming increasingly popular, the PND market has

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been declining since 2009. These products that are initially only supported navigation now incorporate
other functionality such as mobile hands-free system, multimedia player, games, external application
support, travel utilities (world time, currency converter, measurement converter, calculator, etc).

 Pager

A pager (also known as a beeper or bleeper) is a wireless telecommunications device that receives and
displays alphanumeric or voice messages. One-way pagers can only receive messages, while response
pagers and two-way pagers can also acknowledge, reply to, and originate messages using an internal
transmitter.

Pagers operate as part of a paging system which includes one or more fixed transmitters (or in the case of
response pagers and two-way pagers, one or more base stations), as well as a number of pagers carried by
mobile users. These systems can range from a restaurant system with a single low-power transmitter, to a
nationwide system with thousands of high-power base stations.

 Wearable Computers
A wearable computer is any small technological device capable of storing and processing data that can be
worn on the body. Wearable computers are designed for accessibility and convenience, as well as
improvements to workplaces by making information quickly and readily available to the wearer. Common
examples are headsets, smart watch, smart eye glasses, smart jackets, etc.

III. SOFTWARE
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program is a
sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.

a. Relationship between Hardware and Software

 Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must work together to
make a computer produce a useful output.
 Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
 Hardware without a set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
 To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the
hardware.
 Hardware is a one-time expense.

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  Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
 Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
 A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
 If the hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then the software is its 'soul'. Both are
complementary to each other.

There are two types of software −

 System Software
 Application Software

i. System Software

The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the processing
capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers.
These software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which interact with the
hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface between the hardware and the end
users.
Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.

Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −

 Close to the system

 Fast in speed
 Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language

ii. Application Software

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Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All
software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing
a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package, which work
together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.
Examples of Application software are the following −

 Payroll Software
 Student Record Software
 Inventory Management Software
 Income Tax Software
 Railways Reservation Software
 Microsoft Office Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft PowerPoint

Features of application software are as follows −

 Close to the user

 Easy to design
 More interactive
 Slow in speed
 Generally written in high-level language
 Easy to understand
 Easy to manipulate and use
 Bigger in size and requires large storage space

IV. OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)

The Operating System is a program with the following features −

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  An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software and the computer
hardware.
 It is an integrated set of specialized programs used to manage overall resources and operations of
the computer.
 It is a specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all other programs that
reside in the computer, including application programs and other system software.

Objectives of Operating System

The objectives of the operating system are −

 To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.
 To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.
 To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.
 To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it easier for the users to
access and use other resources.
 To manage the resources of a computer system.
 To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, and mediating
conflicting requests from different programs and users.
 To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs.

Characteristics of Operating System

Here is a list of some of the most prominent characteristic features of Operating Systems −
 Memory Management − Keeps track of the primary memory, i.e. what part of it is in use by
whom, what part is not in use, etc. and allocates the memory when a process or program requests
it.
 Processor Management − Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and deallocates the
processor when it is no longer required.
 Device Management − Keeps track of all the devices. This is also called I/O controller that
decides which process gets the device, when, and for how much time.

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 File Management − Allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides who gets the resources.
 Security − Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of passwords and other
similar techniques.
 Job Accounting − Keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs and/or users.
 Control Over System Performance − Records delays between the request for a service and from
the system.
 Interaction with the Operators − Interaction may take place via the console of the computer in
the form of instructions. The Operating System acknowledges the same, does the corresponding
action, and informs the operation by a display screen.
 Error-detecting Aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and
error-detecting methods.
 Coordination Between Other Software and Users − Coordination and assignment of compilers,
interpreters, assemblers, and other software to the various users of the computer systems.

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V. FILE MANAGEMENT

File management describes the fundamental methods for naming, storing and handling files. By using
appropriate file and folder naming strategies, along with good metadata practice and catalog software, you
can make the most of your image collection

Definitions

Drive – The piece of hardware that holds and runs disks and stores files and folders including programs as
well as documents. Your "hard disk" or "hard drive" is usually designated with the letter "C," while your
floppy disk/drive is usually named "A." You also will probably have a CD/DVD drive. Drives can be
internal as well as external. The most common use for external drives is for backup purposes or to move
content from one computer to another.

File – One document, one image, one something. Files have names and are represented by various icons
that indicate which program is used to open them. In the world of computing, the terms ―folder‖ and ―file‖
are entirely separate, distinct, and noninterchangeable. Folders contain files; files cannot contain folders.
Filename – The unique identifier for a file, including or not including its file extension. The filename can
contain letters, numbers and symbols, including spaces. Some symbols are not allowed such as " * : < > ? \
/ |.

File extension – The two or three or four letters after the dot in a filename. The file extension indicates
what kind of file it is: its ―format‖ or ―type.‖ For instance, the file extension .exe refers to an "executable"
file--in other words, an application.

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File management on a computer is similar to filing documents in a filing cabinet. A filing cabinet is used
to store paper files in cardboard folders. In the same way, we can store files and folders on a computer.

Figure 3.1 shows the This PC folder with the sub-folder Music. This folder contains sub-folders that are
organised according to the name of the artist or group. This is to give you an idea of how file management
looks on a computer. In Windows, folders are used to organise files.

Figure 3.1: Folders used for file management

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Folders are stored on a drive in a computer. Data is stored on and retrieved from a disk drive. Each drive
will indicate the type of storage medium, for example, whether it is a hard disk, USB drive, CD, DVD, or
so on. Figure 3.2 shows an example of the different drives that can be found on a computer.

Figure 3.2: Different storage media on a computer

The capital letters and colon indicate what type of disk it is. For example, from Figure 3.2, you can see the
following:

 The C: Which is also known as the C-drive, usually refers to the hard disk drive (HDD).
 The D: Which is also known as the D-drive, usually refers to a CD or DVD drive.
 Other letters are also used to indicate storage media, for example, in this case F:, which
refers to a removable disk (USB). Storage media, such as DVDs, USBs and hard drives, do not
save data to the disks on the computer.

Folders

A Windows operating system organises its drives, folders and files in a hierarchical folder structure. Files
are stored on a computer inside folders. Folders are used to organise a computer‘s files so that it can be
found easier. A folder will contain sub-folders and then files.

In the following example, we will explain a folder by comparing it to a tree. The structure is the shape of a
pyramid, where each row of items is linked to the items beneath it. Because of this pyramidal structure,
this hierarchical structure is also known as an ―inverted tree‖.

Figure 3.3 shows an example of an inverted tree.

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 Figure 3.3: Hierarchical tree

The different drives, such as the different hard drives, CD/DVD drive, USB drives, as well as network
drives, are found in the row below the root. Folders linked to the specific drives are then shown in the next
row.

Any sub-folders and files found in the folder above are shown in the next row. This pattern continues until
the final row only contains files.

The highest level of the tree structure of a drive is, therefore, called the root directory and is stored on the
hard-disk drive of a computer. The documents then form a sub-folder of the root directory C-drive, which
is written as C:\.

File Path

A file path shows the location of where a file, web page, or other item is located on the computer. The file
path shows you to which storage device the file is saved (i.e. the drive letter), in which folder and sub-
folders the file is saved, the name of the file and finally, the type of file (given by the file extension).

For example, Jane has a music folder where she keeps her songs. Figure 3.4 shows an example of this file
path.

Figure 3.4: Example of a file path

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As Figure 3.4 shows, each file‘s unique file path starts with the storage device drive letter. After the drive
letter, you will see the name of the file‘s folders and sub-folders. A back slash (\) is used to separate the
drive letter, and the different folders and files. Finally, the file path ends with the name and extension of
the file.

Windows file names have two parts; the first part is the file name and then a period followed by an
extension. A file extension or file name extension is found at the end of a file name and shows what type
of file it is in Microsoft Windows. The extension is a three- or four-letter abbreviation that identifies the
type of file. For example, in the file name, Moonlight.mp3, the extension is mp3.

Organising Files and Folders

Organising files on your computer is an important task, as it can ultimately save you lots of time and
effort! For you to find files and folders on the computer, it must be organised properly. It is, therefore,
important for you to place files in folders and give them the correct names.

In Microsoft Windows, this can be done in different ways. This section will look at the easiest ways in
which files can be copied or moved between folders, renamed and deleted. You will also learn about how
to search for files on a computer.

Before you can start organising your computer, you first need to see how the computer is currently
organised.

Using A File Manager (THIS PC)

A file manager is a built-in application that is used to organise files and folders. To open the file manager,
double click on the This PC icon. The This PC folder will open up in a new window. From here, you can
start working with the files and folders.

In the This PC screen, the storage devices are indicated by grey and black icons, and include the drive
letter in their name. The figure shows that there are four storage devices – i.e. Computer (C:), Data (D:),
USB Drive (F:) and Recovery (E:). By double-clicking on any of these storage devices, it will open, and
you can browse the files and folders stored in it. If you want to open any files or folders, you should
double-click on them.

After you have examined the different files and folders on the computer, you can start organising them.

As you have learned, files are stored on a computer inside directories (called folders in Microsoft
Windows). These folders are used to help organise a computer‘s files so that files can be found more
easily. Each folder can contain any number of files or sub-folders. For example, a music listener might
create a Music folder with all her music files in it.

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 Figure 3.9: A folder containing a number of music files

A more organised music listener might have a Music folder as the first folder, and then sub-folders for
each artist. It might even have a sub-folder for each style of music and then have folders inside of that for
each artist. This would make it much easier to find songs by a specific artist.

Figure 3.10: Folders can contain both files and folders

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Creating and Naming Folders and Files

An important part of having an effective file structure is creating folders and sub-folders to organise your
files.

To create a new file:

1. Using the File explorer, go to the folder where you want to create a file, for example, Documents.
2. Right click on an empty section of the folder.
3. Click on New, select the type of file that you want to create.
4. Enter a new name for the file.
5. Press Enter.

The same procedure can be used to create new folders. However, instead of selecting the file type option,
the folder you want to create should be selected.

File naming, conventions and properties

File naming and conventions
A file name is used to identify a file on the computer. This is the best method of organising files and
folders on the computer. Naming files properly helps you to navigate and locate files and folders easily. A
file-naming convention (FNC) helps keep the computer clutter-free and allows you to do the following:
Know the contents of a file before you open
 Navigate through long lists of files for the one that you are looking for
 Store different versions of the same document by naming them according to date

Best practices for naming files:

 Keep file names short, but meaningful.

 Include useful information, such as the name of the project or document on which you are
working.
 Include the version number (e.g. v1 or -v1) and the date if there is more than one more
version. Dates should always appear as yyyy/mm/dd to organise the files in order.

Things to avoid when naming files:

 Symbol characters, such as ―\ / < > | ― ? [ ] ; = + & $ α β‖

 Abbreviations that are not easy to understand
 Simple words, such as ―draft‖, ―current‖ or ―document‖.

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File Properties

The File properties window shows you a range of information about a file, such as its file type, size,
author, title and when it was changed last. The Properties window will also give you information on how
you can manipulate the file.

Guided Activity 3.5

To see the properties of a file, right click on the file name and then click on Properties.
1. The Properties dialogue box will give you information about the file, as you can see in the figure
below.

Figure 3.12: Properties dialogue box

Something to know

When giving the new file a name, make sure that you do not accidentally change the file extension.
Changing the file extension will prevent Windows from opening the file correctly.

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Renaming Files

The Rename command allows you to change the name of files. As with Cut and Copy, there are three
different ways to rename files.

Table 3.1: How to rename files

When naming files, it is important that you name the files clearly and in an orderly way. The following are
pointers to help you rename files and folders in an organised way:

 Avoid using a structure that is too difficult to follow.

 Since files are organised alphabetically, you need to think about the way in which you
name files.
 Make sure that you can identify similar files based on the file names.
 Use the dash symbol to separate different items in a file name (for example, the name and
date).

Copying Files

When you copy a file, a duplicate of the file is created and stored on the computer‘s clipboard. This
duplicate file can then be copied onto any storage medium connected to the computer, using
the Paste command.

There are three ways that you can copy and paste files.

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Table 3.2: How to copy and paste files

Moving Files

When moving files, the file or files that you move are copied to a new destination, but then deleted from
its original destination. When doing this, you have not created a copy file, but you have moved a file from
one folder to another folder.

Files are moved when you want to organise them.

To move files, you need to cut and paste them, and NOT copy and paste them.

Table 3.3: How to move files

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SEARCHING FOR FILES

If you are struggling to find a file on the computer, you can always search for it. The search function
allows you to look for any file that is on the computer.

To search for a file in Windows 10, you can do the following:

1. Next to the Start button, you can type to search for the file you are looking for.

Figure 3.13: Searching for files

2. In the example above, the user typed in the word ―device‖. You can see the search results above the
search box.

When searching for files,

 Use different search terms: For example, if you are looking for a spreadsheet file, try
using a different file name. You could have changed the file name while saving the file.
 Last application: If you used a specific application to open and edit the file, you can click
on File > Open > Recent. The file you are looking for might appear in the list of files that you
edited recently.
 Move and rename the file: After you have found the file, you can give it a new file name.
Then, move it to a folder so that you can find it more easily at a later stage. For example, if it is a
new song that you downloaded, move it to the Music folder.

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Deleting Files

The Delete command enables you to remove files from the storage device. This command can be used to
either remove files that you do not need anymore, or to make more space on the storage device.

In Microsoft Windows, deleted files are moved to the Recycle Bin. The Recycle Bin is a temporary folder
where deleted files are stored until you remove them from the bin. Any files you delete will first be moved
to the Recycle Bin before they are permanently deleted.

The following tables show how you can delete files from the computer and how these files can be deleted
from the Recycle Bin.

Table 3.4: How to use the Recycle Bin

Table 3.5: How to remove files from the computer permanently

Something to know

Files that are deleted from a flash drive cannot be restored from the Recycle Bin.

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Restoring Files

If you cannot find a file on the computer, or you have deleted it by mistake, you can still recover the file
by restoring it from the Recycle Bin to its previous

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VI. COMPUTER SECURITY AND MAINTENANCE
What is computer security

Computer security basically is the protection of computer systems and information from harm, theft, and
unauthorized use. It is the process of preventing and detecting unauthorized use of your computer system.
There are various types of computer security which is widely used to protect the valuable information of
an organization.
What is Computer Security and its types?
One way to ascertain the similarities and differences among Computer Security is by asking what is being
secured. For example,

 Information security is securing information from unauthorized access, modification & deletion
 Application Security is securing an application by building security features to prevent from Cyber
Threats such as SQL injection, DoS attacks, data breaches and etc.
 Computer Security means securing a standalone machine by keeping it updated and patched
 Network Security is by securing both the software and hardware technologies
 Cybersecurity is defined as protecting computer systems, which communicate over the
computer networks

It‘s important to understand the distinction between these words, though there isn‘t necessarily a clear
consensus on the meanings and the degree to which they overlap or are interchangeable.

So, Computer security can be defined as controls that are put in place to provide confidentiality,
integrity, and availability for all components of computer systems. Let‘s elaborate the definition.
Components of computer system
The components of a computer system that needs to be protected are:

 Hardware, the physical part of the computer, like the system memory and disk drive
 Firmware, permanent software that is etched into a hardware device‘s nonvolatile memory and is
mostly invisible to the user
 Software, the programming that offers services, like operating system, word processor, internet
browser to the user

The CIA Triad

Computer security is mainly concerned with three main areas:

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  Confidentiality is ensuring that information is available only to the intended audience
 Integrity is protecting information from being modified by unauthorized parties
 Availability is protecting information from being modified by unauthorized parties

In simple language, computer security is making sure information and computer components are usable
but still protected from people or software that shouldn‘t access it or modify it.
Now moving forward with this ‗What is Computer Security?‖ article let‘s look at the most common
security threats.
Computer security threats

Computer security threats are possible dangers that can possibly hamper the normal functioning of your
computer. In the present age, cyber threats are constantly increasing as the world is going digital. The
most harmful types of computer security are:
 Viruses: A computer virus is a malicious program which is loaded into the user‘s computer
without user‘s knowledge. It replicates itself and infects the files and programs on the user‘s PC.
The ultimate goal of a virus is to ensure that the victim‘s computer will never be able to operate
properly or even at all.
 Computer Worm: A computer worm is a software program that can copy itself from one
computer to another, without human interaction. The potential risk here is that it will use up your
computer hard disk space because a worm can replicate in great volume and with great speed
 Phishing: Disguising as a trustworthy person or business, phishers attempt to steal sensitive
financial or personal information through fraudulent email or instant messages. Phishing in
unfortunately very easy to execute. You are deluded into thinking it‘s the legitimate mail and you
may enter your personal information.
 Botnet: A botnet is a group of computers connected to the internet that have been compromised by
a hacker using a computer virus. An individual computer is called ‗zombie computer‘. The result
of this threat is the victim‘s computer, which is the bot will be used for malicious activities and for
a larger scale attack like DoS.
 Rootkit: A rootkit is a computer program designed to provide continued privileged access to a
computer while actively hiding its presence. Once a rootkit has been installed, the controller of the
rootkit will be able to remotely execute files and change system configurations on the host
machine.
 Keylogger: Also known as a keystroke logger, keyloggers can track the real-time activity of a user
on his computer. It keeps a record of all the keystrokes made by user keyboard. Keylogger is also a
very powerful threat to steal people‘s login credential such as username and password.
 These are perhaps the most common security threats that you‘ll come across. Apart from these,
there are others like spyware, wabbits, scareware, bluesnarfing and many more. Fortunately,
there are ways to protect yourself against these attacks.
Why is Computer Security Important?

In this digital era, we all want to keep our computers and our personal information secure and hence
computer security is important to keep our personal information protected. It is also important to maintain

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our computer security and its overall health by preventing viruses and malware which would impact on
the system performance.
Good Computer Security Practices

Computer security threats are becoming relentlessly inventive these days. There is much need for one to
arm oneself with information and resources to safeguard against these complex and growing computer
security threats and stay safe online. Some preventive steps you can take include:

 Secure your computer physically by:

o Installing reliable, reputable security and anti-virus software
o Activating your firewall, because a firewall acts as a security guard between the internet
and your local area network
 Stay up-to-date on the latest software and news surrounding your devices and perform software
updates as soon as they become available
 Avoid clicking on email attachments unless you know the source
 Change passwords regularly, using a unique combination of numbers, letters and case types
 Use the internet with caution and ignore pop-ups, drive-by downloads while surfing
 Taking the time to research the basic aspects of computer security and educate yourself on
evolving cyber-threats
 Perform daily full system scans and create a periodic system backup schedule to ensure your data
is retrievable should something happen to your computer.

Apart from these, there are many ways you can protect your computer system. Aspects such as encryption
and computer cleaners can assist in protecting your computers and its files.
Unfortunately, the number of cyber threats are increasing at a rapid pace and more sophisticated attacks
are emerging. So, having a good foundation in cybersecurity concepts will allow you to protect your
computer against ever-evolving cyber threats.

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VII. CLOUD COMPUTING
The term ―cloud‖, appears to have its origins in network diagrams that represented the internet, or various
parts of it, as schematic clouds. ―Cloud computing‖ was coined for what happens when applications and
services are moved into the internet ―cloud.‖ Cloud computing is not something that suddenly appeared
overnight; in some form, it may trace back to a time when computer systems remotely time-shared
computing resources and applications. More currently though, cloud computing refers to the many
different types of services and applications being delivered in the internet cloud, and the fact that, in many
cases, the devices used to access these services and applications do not require any special applications.
To summarized, Cloud computing is the on-demand availability of computer system resources over a
network, especially data storage and computing power, without direct active management by the user.
Many companies are delivering services from the cloud. Some notable examples include the following:
 Google — Has a private cloud that it uses for delivering Google Docs and many other services to
its users, including email access, document applications, text translations, maps, web analytics, and
much more.
 Microsoft — Has Microsoft® Office 365® online service that allows for content and business
intelligence tools to be moved into the cloud, and Microsoft currently makes its office applications
available in a cloud.
 Salesforce.com — Runs its application set for its customers in a cloud, and its Force.com and
Vmforce.com products provide developers with platforms to build customized cloud services.
But, what is cloud computing? The following sections note cloud and cloud computing characteristics,
services models, deployment models, benefits, and challenges.

Characteristics
Cloud computing has a variety of characteristics, with the main ones being:
• Shared Infrastructure — Uses a virtualized software model, enabling the sharing of physical services,
storage, and networking capabilities. The cloud infrastructure, regardless of deployment model, seeks to
make the most of the available infrastructure across a number of users.
• Dynamic Provisioning — Allows for the provision of services based on current demand requirements.
This is done automatically using software automation, enabling the expansion and contraction of service
capability, as needed. This dynamic scaling needs to be done while maintaining high levels of reliability
and security.
• Network Access — Needs to be accessed across the internet from a broad range of devices such as PCs,
laptops, and mobile devices, using standards-based APIs (for example, ones based on HTTP).
Deployments of services in the cloud include everything from using business applications to the latest
application on the newest smartphones.
• Managed Metering — Uses metering for managing and optimizing the service and to provide reporting
and billing information. In this way, consumers are billed for services according to how much they have
actually used during the billing period.
In short, cloud computing allows for the sharing and scalable deployment of services, as needed, from
almost any location, and for which the customer can be billed based on actual usage.

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Service Models
Once a cloud is established, how its cloud computing services are deployed in terms of business models
can differ depending on requirements. The primary service models being deployed are commonly known
as:
 Software as a Service (SaaS) — Consumers purchase the ability to access and use an application
or service that is hosted in the cloud. A benchmark example of this is Salesforce.com, as discussed
previously, where necessary information for the interaction between the consumer and the service
is hosted as part of the service in the cloud. Also, Microsoft has made a significant investment in
this area, and as part of the cloud computing option for Microsoft® Office 365, its Office suite is
available as a subscription through its cloud-based Online Services.
 Platform as a Service (PaaS) — Consumers purchase access to the platforms, enabling them to
deploy their own software and applications in the cloud. The operating systems and network access
are not managed by the consumer, and there might be constraints as to which applications can be
deployed. Examples include Amazon Web Services (AWS), Rackspace and Microsoft Azure.
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) — Consumers control and manage the systems in terms of the
operating systems, applications, storage, and network connectivity, but do not themselves control
the cloud infrastructure.
Also known are the various subsets of these models that may be related to a particular industry or market.
Communications as a Service (CaaS) is one such subset model used to describe hosted IP telephony
services. Along with the move to CaaS is a shift to more IP-centric communications and more SIP
trunking deployments. With IP and SIP in place, it can be as easy to have the PBX in the cloud as it is to
have it on the premise. In this context, CaaS could be seen as a subset of SaaS.

Deployment Models
Deploying cloud computing can differ depending on requirements, and the following four deployment
models have been identified, each with specific characteristics that support the needs of the services and
users of the clouds in particular ways.
 Private Cloud — The cloud infrastructure has been deployed, and is maintained and operated for
a specific organization. The operation may be in-house or with a third party on the premises.
 Community Cloud — The cloud infrastructure is shared among a number of organizations with
similar interests and requirements. This may help limit the capital expenditure costs for its
establishment as the costs are shared among the organizations. The operation may be in-house or
with a third party on the premises.
 Public Cloud — The cloud infrastructure is available to the public on a commercial basis by a
cloud service provider. This enables a consumer to develop and deploy a service in the cloud with

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 very little financial outlay compared to the capital expenditure requirements normally associated
with other deployment options.
 Hybrid Cloud — The cloud infrastructure consists of a number of clouds of any type, but the
clouds have the ability through their interfaces to allow data and/or applications to be moved from
one cloud to another. This can be a combination of private and public clouds that support the
requirement to retain some data in an organization, and also the need to offer services in the cloud.

Benefits
The following are some of the possible benefits for those who offer cloud computing-based services and
applications:
• Cost Savings — Companies can reduce their capital expenditures and use operational expenditures for
increasing their computing capabilities. This is a lower barrier to entry and also requires fewer in-house IT
resources to provide system support.
• Scalability/Flexibility — Companies can start with a small deployment and grow to a large deployment
fairly rapidly, and then scale back if necessary. Also, the flexibility of cloud computing allows companies
to use extra resources at peak times, enabling them to satisfy consumer demands.
• Reliability — Services using multiple redundant sites can support business continuity and disaster
recovery.
• Maintenance — Cloud service providers do the system maintenance, and access is through APIs that do
not require application installations onto PCs, thus further reducing maintenance requirements.
• Mobile Accessible — Mobile workers have increased productivity due to systems accessible in an
infrastructure available from anywhere.

Challenges
The following are some of the notable challenges associated with cloud computing, and although some of
these may cause a slowdown when delivering more services in the cloud, most also can provide
opportunities, if resolved with due care and attention in the planning stages.
 Security and Privacy — Perhaps two of the more ―hot button‖ issues surrounding cloud
computing relate to storing and securing data, and monitoring the use of the cloud by the service
providers. These issues are generally attributed to slowing the deployment of cloud services. These
challenges can be addressed, for example, by storing the information internal to the organization,
but allowing it to be used in the cloud. For this to occur, though, the security mechanisms between
organization and the cloud need to be robust and a Hybrid cloud could support such a deployment.
 Lack of Standards — Clouds have documented interfaces; however, no standards are associated
with these, and thus it is unlikely that most clouds will be interoperable. The Open Grid Forum is
developing an Open Cloud Computing Interface to resolve this issue and the Open Cloud
Consortium is working on cloud computing standards and practices. The findings of these groups
will need to mature, but it is not known whether they will address the needs of the people
deploying the services and the specific interfaces these services need. However, keeping up to date
on the latest standards as they evolve will allow them to be leveraged, if applicable.

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 Continuously Evolving — User requirements are continuously evolving, as are the requirements
for interfaces, networking, and storage. This means that a ―cloud,‖ especially a public one, does
not remain static and is also continuously evolving.
 Compliance Concerns — The Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) in the US and Data Protection
directives in the EU are just two among many compliance issues affecting cloud computing, based
on the type of data and application for which the cloud is being used. The EU has a legislative
backing for data protection across all member states, but in the US data protection is different and
can vary from state to state. As with security and privacy mentioned previously, these typically
result in Hybrid cloud deployment with one cloud storing the data internal to the organization.

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