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Ear L2 2023

This document discusses the physiology of hearing, explaining how sound waves are perceived by the brain through various transductions, starting from the outer ear to the auditory cortex. It covers sound characteristics such as pitch, intensity, and quality, as well as the mechanisms involved in sound localization and the neural pathways for hearing. The document emphasizes the importance of sound intensity and frequency in determining the perception of sound and the potential risks of hearing damage from loud noises.

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alfredayuba45
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7 views25 pages

Ear L2 2023

This document discusses the physiology of hearing, explaining how sound waves are perceived by the brain through various transductions, starting from the outer ear to the auditory cortex. It covers sound characteristics such as pitch, intensity, and quality, as well as the mechanisms involved in sound localization and the neural pathways for hearing. The document emphasizes the importance of sound intensity and frequency in determining the perception of sound and the potential risks of hearing damage from loud noises.

Uploaded by

alfredayuba45
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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SPECIAL SENSES PHYSIOLOGY (HPHY 307) THE EAR: HEARING

LECTURE 2

BY

DR. YAKUBU SADAU

SEPTEMBER, 2023
HEARING IS OUR PERCEPTION OF SOUND
Hearing
• Is our perception of the energy carried by sound waves

• Which are pressure waves with alternating peaks of


compressed air and valleys in which the air molecules
are farther apart

Sound

• Is the brain’s interpretation of the frequency,


amplitude, and duration of sound waves that reach our
ears
• Our brains translate frequency of sound waves (the
number of wave peaks that pass a given point each
second)

• Into the pitch of a sound

• Low-frequency waves are perceived as low-pitched


sounds, such as the rumble of distant thunder

• High-frequency waves create high-pitched sounds,


such as the screech of finger nails on a blackboard
SOUND CHARACTERISTICS: PITCH, INTENSITY,
QUALITY
Sound wave frequency

• Is measured in waves per second, or hertz (Hz)

• The average human ear can hear sounds over the


frequency range of 20-20,000 Hz, with the most
acute hearing between 1000-3000 Hz

• Our hearing is not as acute as that of many other


animals, just as our sense of smell is less acute
• Bats listen for ultra-high-frequency sound waves
(in the kilohertz range) that bounce off objects in
the dark

• Elephants and some birds can hear sounds in the


infrasound (very low frequency) range

Loudness

• Is our interpretation of sound intensity and is


influenced by the sensitivity of an individual’s ear
• The intensity of a sound wave is a function of
the wave amplitude.

• Intensity is measured on a logarithmic scale in


units called decibels (dB)

• Each 10-dB increase represents a 10-fold


increase in intensity
• Normal conversation has a typical noise level of about
60 dB

• Sounds of 80 dB or more can damage the sensitive


hearing receptors of the ear, resulting in hearing loss

• A typical heavy metal rock concert has noise levels


around 120 dB, an intensity that puts listeners in
immediate danger of damage to their hearing

• The amount of damage depends on the duration and


frequency of the noise as well as its intensity
Figure 2: Sound waves
Quality (timber)

• The quality of the sound is the one which


helps us to distinguish between the musical

• Notes emitted by the different instruments or


voices, even though they have the same

• Pitch and loudness


STIMULUS AND SOUND APPRECIATION
• Hearing is a complex sense that involves multiple
transductions

 Energy from sound waves in the air becomes


mechanical vibration

 Then fluid waves in the cochlea

 The fluid waves open ion channels in hair cells


(the sensory receptors for hearing) ions flow into
hair cells
 Creates electrical signals that release

 Neurotransmitter (chemical signal), which in turn

 Triggers action potentials in the primary auditory


neurons

 Sound waves striking the outer ear are directed


down the ear canal until they hit the tympanic
membrane and cause it to vibrate (first
transduction)
• The tympanic membrane vibrations are transferred to the
malleus, the incus, and the stapes, in that order

• The arrangement of the three connected middle ear bones


creates a lever that multiplies the force of the vibration
(Amplification) so that very little sound energy is lost due to
friction

• If noise levels are so high that there is danger of damage to


the inner ear, small muscles in the middle ear can pull on
the bones to decrease their movement and thereby
dampen sound transmission to some degree

• As the stapes vibrates, it pulls and pushes on the thin


tissue of the oval window, to which it is attached
• Vibrations at the oval window create waves in
the fluid-filled channels of the cochlea (second
transduction)

• As waves move through the cochlea, they


push on the flexible membranes of the
cochlear duct and bend sensory hair cells
inside the duct

• The wave energy dissipates back into the air


of the middle ear at the round window
• Movement of the cochlear duct opens or closes ion
channels on hair cell membranes, creating electrical
signals (third transduction)

• These electrical signals alter neurotransmitter release


(fourth transduction)

• Neurotransmitter binding to the primary auditory


neurons initiates action potentials (fifth transduction)

• That send coded information about sound through the


cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve (cranial
nerve VIII) and the brain
LOCALIZATION OF SOUND
• Sound localization is the ability to detect the
source from where sound is produced or the
direction through which sound wave is traveling

• It is important for survival and it helps to protect


us from moving objects such as vehicles

• Cerebral cortex and medial geniculate body are


responsible for localization of sound
NEURAL PATHWAYS FOR HEARING
• Sensory neurons in the vestibulocochlear nerve
(VIII) synapse with neurons in the medulla
oblongata that project to the inferior colliculus of
the midbrain

• Neurons in this area, in turn, project to the


thalamus, which sends axons to the auditory
cortex of the temporal lobe

• By means of this pathway, neurons in different


regions of the basilar membrane stimulate
neurons in corresponding areas of the auditory
cortex
• Each area of this cortex thus represents a
different part of the basilar membrane and a
different pitch

• The cochlea acts like a frequency analyser, in that


different frequencies (pitches) of sound stimulate
different sensory neurons that project to
different places in the auditory cortex

• The analysis is based on which hair cells activate


the sensory neurons, and this, in turn, is related
to the position of the hair cells on the basilar
membrane
• This is known as the place theory of pitch
Because the different sensory neurons project
to different places in the auditory cortex

• The organization of this cortex is said to be


tonotopic

• The tonotopic organization of the auditory


cortex allows us to perceive the different
pitches of sounds
• The perception of sound intensity depends on the
frequency of action potentials (higher for louder
sounds) produced by the sensory neurons from the
cochlea

• The analysis of pitch can be quite amazing; for


example, we can recognize that a given sound
frequency (such as 440 Hz) is the same regardless of
whether it is played by a violin or a piano

• The harmonics (multiples of a common fundamental


frequency) can vary, depending on their amplitudes,
and this helps produce the different characteristics of
each instrument
• However, if the fundamental frequency is the
same, the pitch is recognized as being the
same on the different instruments
Figure 6: Neural pathways for hearing. These pathways extend from the spiral organ
in the cochlea to the auditory cortex.

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