BCA - Part-3 :: Computer Networking

Course Code: (XVII)

…by

Mohammad Majeed

Faculty Member,

Department of Computer Science,

Nalanda Open University (NOU), Nalanda, Bihar

Page 1 of 45
 CONTENTS

Topics Page No.

1. COMPUTER NETWORK 5

2. CATEGORIES OF NETWORK 6

3. CONNECTION METHODS 10

4. NETWORK TOPOLOGY 12

5. TYPES OF NETWORK 17

6. H/W COMPONENTS 19

7. NETWORK PROTOCOL 22

8. IP ADDRESS 30

9. NETWORK ARCHITECTURE 33

10. NETWORK SWITCHING 35

11. NETWORK OS SERVICES 40

12. GLOSSARY 44

Page 2 of 45
What is a computer Network?

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of computers

and devices connected by communications channels that facilitates communications among users
and allows users to share resources with other users. In the Network of Computers, one Computer
is known as Server and other Computers are known as Clients or Work Stations. The Server
Computer is more powerful and services to the Clients. The Client Computers are less powerful
compare to the Server Computer in the Computer Network. Networks may be classified according
to a wide variety of characteristics.

History:

The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) funded the design of the Advanced Research
Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) for the United States Department of Defense. It was the
first operational computer network in the world. Development of the network began in 1969, based
on designs developed during the 1960s.

Purpose / Benefits:

1. Facilitating communications: Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via
e-mail, instant messaging, chat rooms, telephony, video telephone calls, and videoconferencing.

2. Sharing hardware: In a networked environment, each computer on a network can access and
use hardware on the network. Suppose several personal computers on a network each require
the use of a laser printer. If the personal computers and a laser printer are connected to a
network, each user can then access the laser printer on the network, as they need it.

3. Sharing files, data, and information: In a network environment, any authorized user can access
data and information stored on other computers on the network. The capability of providing
access to data and information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many
networks.

4. Sharing software: Users connected to a network can access application programs on the
network.

Every network includes:

 At least two computers Server or Client workstation.

 Networking Interface Card's (NIC)

 A connection medium, usually a wire or cable, although wireless communication between

networked computers and peripherals is also possible.

 Network Operating system software, such as Microsoft Windows NT or 2000, Novell NetWare,
Unix and Linux.

Page 3 of 45
Categories of Network : Network can be divided in to two main categories:

1. Peer-to-Peer Model 2. Client/Server Model

1. Peer-to-Peer Model:
In Peer-to-Peer networking there are no dedicated servers or hierarchy among the computers. All of the
computers are equal and therefore known as peers. Normally each computer serves as Client/Server and
there is no one assigned to be an administrator responsible for the entire network.

Peer-to-Peer networks are good choices for needs of small organizations where the users are allocated in
the same general area, security is not an issue and the organization and the network will have limited
growth within the foreseeable future.

Advantages of the Peer-To-Peer Network:

 Less initial expense - No need for a dedicated server.

 Setup - An operating system (such as Windows XP) already in place may only need to be
reconfigured for peer-to-peer operations.

Disadvantages of the Peer-To-Peer Network:

 Decentralized - No central repository for files and applications.

 Security - Does not provide the security available on a client/server network.

Page 4 of 45
 2. Client/Server Model:

The client/Server network is the most efficient way to provide. The term Client/Server refers to the
concept of sharing the work involved in processing data between the client computer and the most
powerful server computer.

The Client/Server model is basically an implementation of distributed or cooperative processing. At the

heart of the model is the concept of splitting application functions between a client and a server processor.
The division of labor between the different processors enables the application designer to place an
application function on the processor that is most appropriate for that function. This lets the software
designer optimize the use of processors--providing the greatest possible return on investment for the
hardware.

Client/Server application design also lets the application provider mask the actual location of application
function. The user often does not know where a specific operation is executing. The entire function may
execute in either the PC or server, or the function may be split between them. This masking of application
function locations enables system implementers to upgrade portions of a system over time with a minimum
disruption of application operations, while protecting the investment in existing hardware and software.

Advantages of the Client/Server Network:

 Centralized - Resources and data security are controlled through the server.
 Scalability - Any or all elements can be replaced individually as needs increase.
 Flexibility - New technology can be easily integrated into system.
 Interoperability - All components (client/network/server) work together.
 Accessibility - Server can be accessed remotely and across multiple platforms.

Disadvantages of the Client/Server Network:

 Expense - Requires initial investment in dedicated server.

 Maintenance - Large networks will require a staff to ensure efficient operation.
 Dependence - When server goes down, operations will cease across the network.

Page 5 of 45
DATA TRANSFER BETWEEN TWO COMPUTERS

Page 6 of 45
Page 7 of 45
Methods of Connection: Computer networks can be classified according to the hardware and software
technology that is used to interconnect the individual devices in the network, such as optical fiber, Ethernet,
Wireless LAN. Ethernet uses physical wiring to connect devices. Frequently deployed devices include hubs,
switches, bridges and/or routers. Wireless LAN technology is designed to connect devices without wiring.
These devices use radio waves or infrared signals as a transmission medium.

Wired technologies :

 Twisted-pair - This wire is the most widely used medium for telecommunication. Twisted-pair
wires are ordinary telephone wires which consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs

and are used for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to
reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The transmission speed ranges from 2 million bits
per second to 100 million bits per second.

 Coaxial Ccable - This is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other
worksites for local area networks.

Coaxial Cable
The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire wrapped with insulating layer typically of a flexible
material with a high dielectric constant, all of which are surrounded by a conductive layer. The
layers of insulation help minimize interference and distortion. Transmission speed range from 200
million to more than 500 million bits per second.

 Fiber Optic Cable – It consists of one or more filaments of glass fiber wrapped in protective
layers. It transmits light which can travel over extended distances without signal loss.

Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber-optic cables are not affected by electromagnetic radiation. Transmission speed may reach
trillions of bits per second. The transmission speed of fiber optics is hundreds of times faster than
for coaxial cables and thousands of times faster than for twisted-pair wire.

Page 8 of 45
Wireless technologies :

 Terrestrial Microwave – Terrestrial microwaves use Earth-based transmitter and receiver. The
equipment look similar to satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves use low-gigahertz range, which
limits all communications to line-of-sight. Path between relay stations spaced approx. 30 miles
apart. Microwave antennas are usually placed on top of buildings, towers, hills, and mountain
peaks.

 Communications Satellites – The satellites use microwave radio as their telecommunications

medium which are not deflected by the Earth’s atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space,
typically 22,000 miles above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving
and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.

 Cellular and PCS Systems – They use several radio communications technologies. The systems
are divided to different geographic area. Each area has low-power transmitter or radio relay antenna
device to relay calls from one area to the next area.

 Wireless LANs – Wireless local area networks use a high-frequency radio technology similar to
digital cellular and a low-frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum
technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area. An example of
open-standards wireless radio-wave technology is IEEE 802.11b.

 Bluetooth – It is a short range wireless technology. Operate at approx. 1Mbps with range from 10
to 100 meters. Bluetooth is an open wireless protocol for data exchange over short distances.

 The Wireless Web – The wireless web refers to the use of the World Wide Web through
equipments like cellular phones, pagers, PDAs, and other portable communications devices. The
wireless web service offers anytime/anywhere connection.

Advantages of Wireless Networks:

 Mobility - With a laptop computer or mobile device, access can be available throughout a school,
at the mall, on an airplane, etc. More and more businesses are also offering free Wi-Fi access.

 Fast setup - If your computer has a wireless adapter, locating a wireless network can be as simple
as clicking "Connect to a Network" -- in some cases, you will connect automatically to networks
within range.

 Cost - Setting up a wireless network can be much more cost effective than buying and installing
cables.

 Expandability - Adding new computers to a wireless network is as easy as turning the computer on
(as long as you do not exceed the maximum number of devices).

Page 9 of 45
Disadvantages of Wireless Networks:

 Security - Wireless networks are much more susceptible to unauthorized use. If you set up a
wireless network, be sure to include maximum security. You should always enable WEP (Wired
Equivalent Privacy) or WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access), which will improve security and help to
prevent virtual intruders and freeloaders.

 Interference - Because wireless networks use radio signals and similar techniques for transmission,
they are susceptible to interference from lights and electronic devices.

 Inconsistent connections - How many times have you heard, "Wait a minute, I just lost my
connection?" Because of the interference caused by electrical devices and/or items blocking the
path of transmission, wireless connections are not nearly as stable as those through a dedicated
cable.

 Power consumption - The wireless transmitter in a laptop requires a significant amount of power;
therefore, the battery life of laptops can be adversely impacted. If you are planning a laptop project
in your classroom, be sure to have power plugs and/or additional batteries available.

 Speed - The transmission speed of wireless networks is improving; however, faster options (such
as gigabit Ethernet) are available via cables. In addition, if set up a wireless network at home, and
you are connecting to the Internet via a DSL modem (at perhaps 3 Mbps), your wireless access to
the Internet will have a maximum of 3 Mbps connection speed.

Computer Network Topology :

Network Topology is the physical interconnections of the elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a
computer Network. Computer Networks may be classified according to the network topology upon which
the network is based, such as bus network, star network, ring network, mesh network, star-bus network,
tree or hierarchical topology network. Network topology is the coordination by which devices in the
network are arranged in their logical relations to one another, independent of physical arrangement.

The Computer Network Topology recognizes four basic topologies:

 Bus topology
 Star topology
 Ring topology
 Tree topology

Page 10 of 45
Bus Topology:

Logical Actual

In local area networks where bus topology is used, each machine is connected to a single cable. Each
computer or server is connected to the single bus cable through some kind of connector. A terminator is
required at each end of the bus cable to prevent the signal from bouncing back and forth on the bus cable.
A signal from the source travels in both directions to all machines connected on the bus cable until it finds
the recipient. If the machine address does not match the intended address for the data, the machine ignores
the data. Since the bus topology consists of only one wire, it is rather inexpensive to implement when
compared to other topologies. But the managing is difficult. If the network cable breaks, the entire network
will be down.

Advantages of the Bus Topology:

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a bus.

 Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of the Bus Topology:

 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.

 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.

 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Page 11 of 45
Star Topology :

Logical Actual

In local area networks with a star topology, each network host is connected to a central hub. In contrast to
the bus topology, the star topology connects each node to the hub with a point-to-point connection. All
traffic that transverses the network passes through the central hub. The hub acts as a signal booster or
repeater. The star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement. An advantage of
the star topology is the simplicity of adding additional nodes. The primary disadvantage of the star topology
is that the hub represents a single point of failure.

Advantages of the Star Topology:

 Easy to install and wire.

 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.

 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of the Star Topology:

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

 If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.

 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.

Page 12 of 45
Ring Topology :

Logical Actual

In local area networks where the ring topology is used, each computer is connected to the network in a
closed loop or ring. Each machine or computer has a unique address that is used for identification purposes.
The signal passes through each machine or computer connected to the ring in one direction. Ring topologies
typically utilize a token passing scheme, used to control access to the network. By utilizing this scheme,
only one machine can transmit on the network at a time. The machines or computers connected to the ring
act as signal boosters or repeaters which strengthen the signals that transverse the network. The primary
disadvantage of ring topology is the failure of one machine will cause the entire network to fail.

Ring topology ( Fully connected ) Ring topology ( Partially connected )

Advantages of the Star Topology:

 Easy to install and wire.

 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of the Star Topology:

 Disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.

 failure of one machine will cause the entire network to fail.

Page 13 of 45
Tree Topology :

Logical Actual

Also known as a hierarchical network.

The type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the top level of the hierarchy) is connected to
one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the second level) with a point-to-
point link between each of the second level nodes and the top level central 'root' node, while each of the
second level nodes that are connected to the top level central 'root' node will also have one or more other
nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level) connected to it, also with a point-to-
point link, the top level central 'root' node being the only node that has no other node above it in the
hierarchy.

Advantages of the Tree Topology:

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

 Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages of the Tree Topology:

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.

 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

Page 14 of 45
Types of Networks : Common types of computer networks may be identified by their scale.

Local Area Network:

A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical
area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings.
Each computer or device on the network is a node. Current wired LANs are most likely to be based on
Ethernet technology, although new standards like ITU-T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN
using existing home wires (coaxial cables, phone lines and power lines).
Typical library network, in a branching tree topology and controlled access to resources
All interconnected devices must understand the network layer (layer 3), because they are handling multiple
subnets (the different colors). Those inside the library, which have only 10/100 Mbit/s Ethernet connections
to the user device and a Gigabit Ethernet connection to the central router, could be called "layer 3 switches"
because they only have Ethernet interfaces and must understand IP. It would be more correct to call them
access routers, where the router at the top is a distribution router that connects to the Internet and academic
networks' customer access routers.
The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (Wide Area Networks), include their higher
data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and no need for leased telecommunication lines. Current
Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at speeds up to 10 Gbit/s. This is the data transfer
rate. IEEE has projects investigating the standardization of 40 and 100 Gbit/s. Home area network
A home area network is a residential LAN which is used for communication between digital devices
typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of personal computers and accessories, such as
printers and mobile computing devices. An important function is the sharing of Internet access, often a
broadband service through a CATV or Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) provider. In the case of a university
campus-based campus area network, the network is likely to link a variety of campus buildings including;
academic departments, the university library and student residence halls. A campus area network is larger
than a local area network but smaller than a wide area network (WAN) (in some cases).

Metropolitan Area Network:

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that connects two or more local area networks or campus
area networks together but does not extend beyond the boundaries of the immediate town/city. Routers,
switches and hubs are connected to create a metropolitan area network.

Wide Area Network:

A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area such as a city,
country, or spans even intercontinental distances, using a communications channel that combines many
types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and air waves. A WAN often uses transmission facilities
provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the
lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.

INTERNET:

The Internet is a worldwide collection of computer networks that links millions of businesses, government
agencies, educational institutions, and individuals to exchange data and distribute processing task. It is
based on the networking technologies of the Internet Protocol Suite. It is the successor of the Advanced
Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by DARPA of the U.S. Department of
Defense. The Internet is also the communications backbone underlying the World Wide Web (WWW). The
'Internet' is most commonly spelled with a capital 'I' as a proper noun, for historical reasons and to
distinguish it from other generic internetworks.
Participants in the Internet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred documented, and often
standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet Protocol Suite and an addressing system (IP

Page 15 of 45
Addresses) administered by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority and address registries. Service
providers and large enterprises exchange information about the reach ability of their address spaces through
the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), forming a redundant worldwide mesh of transmission paths.

Important Telecommunications Services On The Internet:

 E-mail - is the exchanging digital messages over the Internet.

 Usenet - is a worldwide distributed Internet discussion system.

 Internet Relay Chat (IRC) - is a form of real-time Internet text messaging (chat) or synchronous
conferencing.

 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) - is used to exchange and manipulate files over a TCP/IP-based
network, such as the Internet.

 Telnet - is used to log on to and use thousands of Internet computer systems around the world.

 World Wide Web (WWW) - is a system of interlinked hypertext documents contained on the
Internet.

 Instant Messaging (IM) - is a form of real-time direct text-based communication between two or
more people using shared clients.

INTRANET:

With the advancements made in browser-based software for the Internet, many private organizations are
implementing intranets. An intranet is a private network utilizing Internet-type tools, but available only
within that organization. For large organizations, an intranet provides an easy access mode to corporate
information for employees.

VPN (Virtual Private Network):

VPN uses a technique known as tunneling to transfer data securely on the Internet to a remote access server
on your workplace network. Using a VPN helps you save money by using the public Internet instead of
making long-distance phone calls to connect securely with your private network. There are two ways to
create a VPN connection, by dialing an Internet service provider (ISP), or connecting directly to Internet.

Basic Hardware Components :

All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network nodes, such as
Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers. In addition, some method of
connecting these building blocks is required, usually in the form of galvanic cable (most commonly

Page 16 of 45
Category 5 cable). Less common are microwave links (as in IEEE 802.12) or optical cable ("optical fiber").
An Ethernet card may also be required.

Hardware Components

Network Interface Cards:

A network card, network adapter, or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer hardware designed
to allow computers to communicate over a computer network which provides physical access to a
networking medium and often provides a low-level addressing system.

Repeaters:

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal, cleans it from the unnecessary noise, regenerates it
and retransmits it at a higher power level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover
longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required
for cable which runs longer than 100 meters.

Hubs:

A network hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied unmodified to all
ports of the hub for transmission. The destination address in the frame is not changed to a broadcast address.

Page 17 of 45
Bridges:

A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model.
Bridges do send broadcasts to all ports except the one on which the broadcast was received. However,
bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learn which MAC addresses are
reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for
that address to that port only.
Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames that it sees
on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored and the bridge assumes
that MAC address is associated with that port. The first time that a previously unknown destination address
is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived.

Bridges come in three basic types:

 Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs)

 Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs. Remote
bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced with
routers.

 Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs

Switches:

A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2 data grams (chunk of data
communication) between ports (connected cables) based on the MAC addresses in the packets. This is
distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the frames to the ports involved in the communication rather
than all ports connected. A switch breaks the collision domain but represents itself a broadcast domain.
Switches make forwarding decisions of frames on the basis of MAC addresses. A switch normally has
numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and cascading additional switches. Some switches
are capable of routing based on Layer 3 addressing or additional logical levels; these are called multi-layer
switches.

Routers:

A router is a networking device that forwards packets between networks using information in protocol
headers and forwarding tables to determine the best next router for each packet.

Routing: Routing (or routing) is the process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network
traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including the telephone network, electronic data
networks (such as the Internet), and transportation networks.

In packet switching networks, routing directs packet forwarding, the transit of logically addressed packets
from their source toward their ultimate destination through intermediate nodes; typically hardware devices
called routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General-purpose computers with multiple network
cards can also forward packets and perform routing, though they are not specialized hardware and may
suffer from limited performance. The routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing
tables which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing
tables, which are held in the routers' memory, is very important for efficient routing. Most routing

Page 18 of 45
algorithms use only one network path at a time, but multipath routing techniques enable the use of multiple
alternative paths.

Routing, in a more narrow sense of the term, is often contrasted with

bridging in its assumption that network addresses are structured and that Network Routing Schemes
similar addresses imply proximity within the network. Because
structured addresses allow a single routing table entry to represent the
route to a group of devices, structured addressing (routing, in the narrow
sense) outperforms unstructured addressing (bridging) in large networks,
and has become the dominant form of addressing on the Internet, though
bridging is still widely used within localized environments.

anycast
Routing schemes differ in their delivery semantics:

 unicast delivers a message to a single specified node;

 broadcast delivers a message to all nodes in the network;

 multicast delivers a message to a group of nodes that have expressed

interest in receiving the message; broadcast

 anycast delivers a message to any one out of a group of nodes,

typically the one nearest to the source.

Unicast is the dominant form of message delivery on the Internet multicast

Network Routing

What is a Protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between unicast
computers on a network. In order for two computers to talk to each other,
they must be speaking the same language. Many different types of
network protocols and standards are required to ensure that computer (no
matter which operating system, network card, or application) can
communicate with another computer located local or around the world.
Modern computer networks are designed in a highly structured way.
Computer networks are organized as a series of layers or levels, each one
built upon its predecessor. The number of layers, the name of each layers and the function of each layer
differ from network to network. In all network, the purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the
higher layers. Layer n on one machine carries on a conversation with layer n on another machine. The rules
and conventions used in this conversation are known as the layer n protocol. Although each network
protocol is different, they all share the same physical cabling. This common method of accessing
the physical network allows multiple protocols to peacefully coexist over the network media, and

Page 19 of 45
allows the builder of a network to use common hardware for a variety of protocols. This concept
is known as "protocol independence".

The Set Of Layers and Protocols is called the Network Architecture.

INTERFACE :

Between each pair of adjacent layers there is an interface. The interface defines which primitive operations
and services the lower layer offers to the upper layer.

COMMUNICATIONS :

Simplex : If data travel in one direction, it is called simplex communication.

Half-duplex : If data travel in both direction but not simultaneously, it is called half-duplex
communication.

Full-duplex : If data travel in both direction simultaneously, it is called full-duplex communication.

The Open System Interconnection Model (OSI Model):

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model defines seven layers of networking protocols.
OSI has two major components: an abstract model of networking, called the Basic Reference Model or
seven-layer model, and a set of specific protocols. The OSI model is a reference model which most IT
professionals use to describe networks and network applications.

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) divides Network Architecture into seven layers which, from top
to bottom, are the Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data-Link, and Physical Layers.
It is therefore often referred to as the OSI Seven Layer Model.

The 7 Layers of the OSI Model:

The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model defines a networking framework for implementing
protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in
one station, proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy.

This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication partners are
identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication and privacy are considered,
and any constraints on data syntax are identified. Everything at this layer is application –
Application
specific. This layer provides application services for file transfers, e-mail, and other network
(Layer 7)
software services. Telnet and FTP are applications that exist entirely in the application level.
Tiered application architectures are part of this layer.

Page 20 of 45
 This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (e.g., encryption)
by translating from application to network format, and vice versa. The presentation layer
Presentation works to transform data into the form that the application layer can accept. This layer
(Layer 6) formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom from compatibility
problems. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.

This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The session
Session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between
(Layer 5) the applications at each end. It deals with session and connection coordination.

This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is
Transport
responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer.
(Layer 4)
This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as
virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are
Network
functions of this layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error handling, congestion
(Layer 3)
control and packet sequencing.

At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission
protocol knowledge and management and handles errors in the physical layer, flow control
and frame synchronization. The data link layer is divided into two sub layers: The Media
Data Link
Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub layer
(Layer 2)
controls how a computer on the network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it.
The LLC layer controls frame synchronization, flow control and error checking.

This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- through the
network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware means of sending
Physical
and receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical aspects.
(Layer 1)
Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are protocols with physical layer components.

The 7 Layers of the OSI Model

Drawbacks of the OSI Model:

The OSI model was originally intended to describe a complete set of production network protocols, but the
cost and complexity of the government processes involved in defining the OSI network made the project
unviable. In the time that the OSI designers spent arguing over who would be responsible for what, TCP/IP
conquered the world.

1. The most major difficulty with the OSI model is that it does not map well to the real world!

2. The OSI was created after many of today’s protocols were already in production use. These existing
protocols, such as TCP/IP, were designed and built around the needs of real users with real
problems to solve. The OSI model was created by academicians for academic purposes.

3. The OSI model is a very poor standard, but it's the only well-recognized standard we have which
describes networked applications.

Page 21 of 45
The Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (The TCP/IP model) :

The TCP/IP model evolved from ARPANET, which was the world's first wide area network and a
predecessor of the Internet. The TCP/IP Model is sometimes called the Internet Model.

The TCP/IP model, or Internet Protocol Suite, describes a set of general design guidelines and
implementations of specific networking protocols to enable computers to communicate over a network.
TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed, transmitted,
routed and received at the destination. Protocols exist for a variety of different types of communication
services between computers.

The TCP/IP model and related protocols are maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force. It
loosely defines a four-layer model, with the layers having names, not numbers, as follows:

1. Application (process-to-process) Layer : This is the scope within which applications create user
data and communicate this data to other processes or applications on another or the same host. The
communications partners are often called peers. This is where the "higher level" protocols such as SMTP,
FTP, SSH, HTTP, etc. operate.

2. Transport (host-to-host) Layer : The Transport Layer constitutes the networking regime between
two network hosts, either on the local network or on remote networks separated by routers. The Transport
Layer provides a uniform networking interface that hides the actual topology (layout) of the underlying
network connections. This is where flow-control, error-correction, and connection protocols exist, such as
TCP. This layer deals with opening and maintaining connections between Internet hosts.

3. Internet (internetworking) Layer : The Internet Layer has the task of exchanging data grams
across network boundaries. It is therefore also referred to as the layer that establishes internetworking,
indeed, it defines and establishes the Internet. This layer defines the addressing and routing structures used
for the TCP/IP protocol suite. The primary protocol in this scope is the Internet Protocol, which defines IP
addresses. Its function in routing is to transport data grams to the next IP router that has the connectivity to
a network closer to the final data destination.

4. Link Layer : This layer defines the networking methods with the scope of the local network link on
which hosts communicate without intervening routers. This layer describes the protocols used to describe
the local network topology and the interfaces needed to affect transmission of Internet Layer datagrams to
next-neighbor hosts.

Page 22 of 45
 No. of
Name of
the Common Protocols
the Layer
Layer
7. Application telnet, FTP
6. Presentation HTTP, SMTP, MIME
5. Session RPC, Named Pipes, NETBIOS
4. Transport TCP, UDP
3. Network IP
2. Data Link SLIP , Frame relay
1. Physical RS-232, Ethernet

OSI Model : Layer Number, Layer Name and Common Protocols used in each Layer

OSI Model

Data unit Layer Function

7.
Network process to application
Application

Data 6.
Host Data representation and encryption
Presentation
layers
5. Session Interhost communication

Segment 4. Transport End-to-end connections and reliability

Packet 3. Network Path determination and logical addressing

Media
Frame 2. Data Link Physical addressing
layers
Bit 1. Physical Media, signal and binary transmission

Encapsulation of Application Data descending through the OSI layers

Page 23 of 45
 TCP/IP Model
Name of the Layer Common Protocols
Application Layer DNS · FTP · HTTP, SMTP, Telnet
Transport Layer TCP · UDP · DCCP · RSVP
Internet Layer IP (IPv4, IPv6) · ICMP
Network Link Layer ARP · PPP · Ethernet, DSL, ISDN, FDDI

TCP/IP Model : Layer Name and Common Protocols used in each Layer

Encapsulation of Application Data descending through the TCP/IP layers

Page 24 of 45
 Some Important Protocols and their jobs

Protocol Acronym Its Job

Point-To-Point TCP/IP The backbone protocol of
the internet. Popular also for
intranets using the internet

Transmission Control Protocol/internet Protocol TCP/IP The backbone protocol of

the internet. Popular also for
intranets using the internet

Internetwork Package Exchange/Sequenced Packet IPX/SPX This is a standard protocol

Exchange for Novell Network
Operating System

NetBIOS Extended User Interface NetBEUI This is a Microsoft protocol

that doesn't support routing
to other networks

File Transfer Protocol FTP Used to send and receive

files from a remote host

Hyper Text Transfer Protocol HTTP Used for the web to send
documents those are
encoded in HTML.

Network File Services NFS Allows network nodes or

workstations to access files
and drives as if they were
their own.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol SMTP Used to send Email over a

network

Telnet Telnet Used to connect to a host

and emulate a terminal that
the remote server can
recognize

Page 25 of 45
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE OSI AND TCP/IP MODELS.

SIMILARITIES :

1. They share similar architecture. - Both of the models share a similar architecture. This can be
illustrated by the fact that both of them are constructed with layers.

2. They share a common application layer.- Both of the models share a common "application layer".
However in practice this layer includes different services depending upon each model.

3. Both models have comparable transport and network layers.- This can be illustrated by the fact that
whatever functions are performed between the presentation and network layer of the OSI model
similar functions are performed at the Transport layer of the TCP/IP model.

4. Knowledge of both models is required by networking professionals.

5. Both models assume that packets are switched.- Basically this means that individual packets may
take differing paths in order to reach the same destination.

DISSIMILARITIES :

1. TCP/IP Protocols are considered to be standards around which the internet has developed. The OSI
model however is a "generic, protocol- independent standard."

2. TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer.

3. TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the network access layer.

4. TCP/IP appears to be a more simpler model and this is mainly due to the fact that it has fewer layers.

5. TCP/IP is considered to be a more credible model- This is mainly due to the fact because TCP/IP
protocols are the standards around which the internet was developed therefore it mainly gains
creditability due to this reason. Where as in contrast networks are not usually built around the OSI
model as it is merely used as a guidance tool.

The OSI model consists of 7 architectural layers whereas the TCP/IP only has 4 layers.

Page 26 of 45
Internet Protocol (IP) address:

An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical label that is assigned to devices participating in a
computer network utilizing the Internet Protocol for communication between its nodes. An IP address
serves two principal functions in networking: host identification and location addressing. The role of the IP
address has also been characterized as follows: "A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates
where it is. A route indicates how to get there."

The original designers of TCP/IP defined an IP address as a 32-bit number and this system, now named
Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4), is still in use today. However, due to the enormous growth of the Internet
and the resulting depletion of the address space, a new addressing system (IPv6), using 128 bits for the
address, was developed in 1995. Although IP addresses are stored as binary numbers, they are usually
displayed in human-readable notations, such as 208.77.188.166 (for IPv4), and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:1:1
(for IPv6).

The Internet Protocol also has the task of routing data packets between networks, and IP addresses specify
the locations of the source and destination nodes in the topology of the routing system. For this purpose,
some of the bits in an IP address are used to designate a sub network. The number of these bits is indicated
in CIDR notation, appended to the IP address, e.g., 208.77.188.166/24.

With the development of private networks and the threat of IPv4 address exhaustion, a group of private
address spaces was set aside by RFC 1918. These private addresses may be used by anyone on private
networks. They are often used with network address translators to connect to the global public Internet.

The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) manages the IP address space
allocations globally.

IP version 4 addresses :

IPv4 uses 32-bit (4-byte) addresses, which limits the address space to 4,294,967,296 (232) possible unique
addresses. IPv4 reserves some addresses for special purposes such as private networks (~18 million
addresses) or multicast addresses (~270 million addresses). This reduces the number of addresses that can
be allocated to end users and, as the number of addresses available is consumed, IPv4 address exhaustion
is inevitable. This foreseeable shortage was the primary motivation for developing IPv6, which is in various
deployment stages around the world and is the only strategy for IPv4 replacement and continued Internet
expansion.

IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-decimal notation (four numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255,
separated by dots, e.g. 208.77.188.166). Each part represents 8 bits of the address, and is therefore called
an octet.

IPv4 networks:

In the early stages of development of the Internet protocol, network administrators interpreted an IP address
as a structure of network number and host number. The highest order octet (most significant eight bits) was
designated the network number and the rest of the bits were called the rest field or host identifier and were

Page 27 of 45
used for host numbering within a network. This method soon proved inadequate as additional networks
developed that were independent from the existing networks already designated by a network number. In
1981, the Internet addressing specification was revised with the introduction of classful network
architecture.

Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual network assignments. The first three bits
of the most significant octet of an IP address was defined as the class of the address. Three classes (A, B,
and C) were defined for universal unicast addressing. Depending on the class derived, the network
identification was based on octet boundary segments of the entire address. Each class used successively
additional octets in the network identifier, thus reducing the possible number of hosts in the higher order
classes (B and C). The following table gives an overview of this system.

Class 1st octet in binary Range of first octet Network ID Host ID No. of Networks No. of Hosts

1 - 126 [ 127 for

A 0XXXXXXX A b.c.d 27 = 128 – 2 224 - 2 = 16,777,214
loopback ]
B 10XXXXXX 128 – 191 a.b c.d 214 = 16,384 216 - 2 = 65,534
C 110XXXXX 192 – 223 a.b.c D 221 = 2,097,152 28 - 2 = 254

IP version 6 addresses:

The rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space, despite conservation techniques, prompted the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) to explore new technologies to expand the Internet's addressing capability.
The permanent solution was deemed to be a redesign of the Internet Protocol itself. This next generation of
the Internet Protocol, aimed to replace IPv4 on the Internet, was eventually named Internet Protocol Version
6 (IPv6) in 1995. The address size was increased from 32 to 128 bits or 16 octets, which, even with a
generous assignment of network blocks, is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future. Mathematically,
the new address space provides the potential for a maximum of 2128, or about 3.403 × 1038 unique addresses.

The new design is not based on the goal to provide a sufficient quantity of addresses alone, but rather to
allow efficient aggregation of subnet routing prefixes to occur at routing nodes. As a result, routing table
sizes are smaller, and the smallest possible individual allocation is a subnet for 2 64 hosts, which is the size
of the square of the size of the entire IPv4 Internet. At these levels, actual address utilization rates will be
small on any IPv6 network segment. The new design also provides the opportunity to separate the
addressing infrastructure of a network segment—that is the local administration of the segment's available
space—from the addressing prefix used to route external traffic for a network. IPv6 has facilities that
automatically change the routing prefix of entire networks should the global connectivity or the routing
policy change without requiring internal redesign or renumbering. The large number of IPv6 addresses
allows large blocks to be assigned for specific purposes and, where appropriate, to be aggregated for
efficient routing. With a large address space, there is not the need to have complex address conservation
methods as used in classless inter-domain routing (CIDR).
All modern desktop and enterprise server operating systems include native support for the IPv6 protocol,
but it is not yet widely deployed in other devices, such as home networking routers, voice over Internet
Protocol (VoIP) and multimedia equipment, and network peripherals.

Page 28 of 45
Packet :

In information technology, a packet is a formatted unit of data carried by a packet mode computer network.
Computer communications links that do not support packets, such as traditional point-to-point
telecommunications links, simply transmit data as a series of bytes, characters, or bits alone. When data is
formatted into packets, the bitrate of the communication medium can better be shared among users than if
the network were circuit switched. By using packet switched networking it is also harder to guarantee a
lowest possible bitrate

A packet consists of two kinds of data: control information and user data (also known as payload). The
control information provides data the network needs to deliver the user data, for example: source and
destination addresses, error detection codes like checksums, and sequencing information. Typically, control
information is found in packet headers and trailers, with user data in between.

Difference between a Packet and a Datagram :

In general, the term packet applies to any message formatted as a packet, while the term datagram is
generally reserved for packets of an "unreliable" service. A "reliable" service is one that notifies the user if
delivery fails, while an "unreliable" one does not notify the user if delivery fails. For example, IP provides
an unreliable service. Together, TCP and IP provide a reliable service, whereas UDP and IP provide an
unreliable one. All these protocols use packets, but UDP packets are generally called datagram.

Datagram:

The unit transmitted between a pair of internet modules. Data, called datagram, from sources to destinations.
The Internet Protocol does not provide a reliable communication facility. There are no acknowledgments
either end-to-end or hop-by-hop. There is no error no retransmissions. There is no flow control.

Fragment:

An IP datagram that represents a portion of a higher layer's packet that was too large to be sent in its entirety
over the output network.

Packet :

A packet is the unit of data passed across the interface between the Internet Layer and the Link Layer. It
includes an IP header and data. A packet may be a complete IP datagram or a fragment of an IP datagram.

Domain Name System (DNS):

The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical naming system for computers, services, or any resource
connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates various information with domain names
assigned to each of the participants. Most importantly, it translates domain names meaningful to humans
into the numerical (binary) identifiers associated with networking equipment for the purpose of locating
and addressing these devices worldwide. An often used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is
that it serves as the "phone book" for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into
IP addresses. For example, www.example.com translates to 208.77.188.166.

Page 29 of 45
 The Domain Name System makes it possible to assign domain names to groups of Internet users in
a meaningful way, independent of each user's physical location. Because of this, World-Wide Web (WWW)
hyperlinks and Internet contact information can remain consistent and constant even if the current Internet
routing arrangements change or the participant uses a mobile device.

Internet domain names are easier to remember than IP addresses such as 208.77.188.166
(IPv4) or 2001:db8:1f70::999:de8:7648:6e8 (IPv6). People take advantage of this when they
recite meaningful URLs and e-mail addresses without having to know how the machine will actually locate
them.

The Domain Name System distributes the responsibility of assigning domain names and mapping those
names to IP addresses by designating authoritative name servers for each domain. Authoritative name
servers are assigned to be responsible for their particular domains, and in turn can assign other authoritative
name servers for their sub-domains. This mechanism has made the DNS distributed, fault tolerant, and
helped avoid the need for a single central register to be continually consulted and updated.
In general, the Domain Name System also stores other types of information, such as the list of mail servers
that accept email for a given Internet domain. By providing a worldwide, distributed keyword-based
redirection service, the Domain Name System is an essential component of the functionality of the Internet.
The major generic top-level domain registries, such as for the COM, NET, ORG, INFO domains and others.

Network Architectures:
Ethernet:

Ethernet is the most popular physical layer LAN technology in use today. Other LAN types include Token
Ring, Fast Ethernet, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and
LocalTalk. Ethernet is popular because it strikes a good balance between speed, cost and ease of installation.
These benefits, combined with wide acceptance in the computer marketplace and the ability to support
virtually all popular network protocols, make Ethernet an ideal networking technology for most computer
users today. The Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) defines the Ethernet standard as
IEEE Standard 802.3. This standard defines rules for configuring an Ethernet network as well as specifying

Page 30 of 45
how elements in an Ethernet network interact with one another. By adhering to the IEEE standard, network
equipment and network protocols can communicate efficiently.

Fast Ethernet:

For Ethernet networks that need higher transmission speeds, the Fast Ethernet standard (IEEE 802.3u) has
been established. This standard raises the Ethernet speed limit from 10 Megabits per second (Mbps) to 100
Mbps with only minimal changes to the existing cable structure. There are three types of Fast Ethernet:
100BASE-TX for use with level 5 UTP cable, 100BASE-FX for use with fiber-optic cable, and 100BASE-
T4 which utilizes an extra two wires for use with level 3 UTP cable. The 100BASE-TX standard has become
the most popular due to its close compatibility with the 10BASE-T Ethernet standard. For the network
manager, the incorporation of Fast Ethernet into an existing configuration presents a host of decisions.
Managers must determine the number of users in each site on the network that need the higher throughput,
decide which segments of the backbone need to be reconfigured specifically for 100BASE-T and then
choose the necessary hardware to connect the 100BASE-T segments with existing 10BASE-T segments.
Gigabit Ethernet is a future technology that promises a migration path beyond Fast Ethernet so the next
generation of networks will support even higher data
transfer speeds.

Token Ring:

Token Ring is another form of network configuration which

differs from Ethernet in that all messages are transferred in
a unidirectional manner along the ring at all times. Data is
transmitted in tokens, which are passed along the ring and
viewed by each device. When a device sees a message
addressed to it, that device copies the message and then
marks that message as being read. As the message makes its
way along the ring, it eventually gets back to the sender who
now notes that the message was received by the intended
device. The sender can then remove the message and free
that token for use by others.

Various PC vendors have been proponents of Token Ring

networks at different times and thus these types of networks
have been implemented in many organizations.

Page 31 of 45
FDDI:

FDDI (Fiber-Distributed Data Interface) is a standard for data

transmission on fiber optic lines in a local area network that
can extend in range up to 200 km (124 miles). The FDDI
protocol is based on the token ring protocol. In addition to
being large geographically, an FDDI local area network can
support thousands of users.

Network Switching:

A network switch or switching hub is a computer networking device that connects network segments.
The term commonly refers to a network bridge that processes and routes data at the data link layer (layer
2) of the OSI model. Switches that additionally process data at the network layer (layer 3 and above) are
often referred to as Layer 3 switches or multilayer switches. The term network switch does not generally
encompass unintelligent or passive network devices such as hubs and repeaters.

Packet Switching:

In packet-based networks, the message gets broken into small data packets. These packets are sent out from
the computer and they travel around the network seeking out the most efficient route to travel as circuits
become available. Each packet may go a different route from the others. Each packet is sent with a ‘header
address’. This tells it where its final destination is, so it knows where to go. If a packet fails to arrive, the
recipient computer sends a message back to the computer which originally sent the data, asking for the
missing packet to be resent

Advantages:

 Security
 Bandwidth used to full potential
 Devices of different speeds can communicate
 Not affected by line failure (rediverts signal)
 Availability – do not have to wait for a direct connection to become available
 During a crisis or disaster, when the public telephone network might stop working, e-mails and
texts can still be sent via packet switching

Page 32 of 45
Disadvantages:

 Under heavy use there can be a delay

 Data packets can get lost or become corrupted
 Protocols are needed for a reliable transfer
 Not so good for some types data streams e.g real-time video streams can lose frames due to the way
packets arrive out of sequence.

Circuit Switching:

In modern circuit-switched networks, electronic signals pass through several switches before a connection
is established. During a call, no other network traffic can use those switches. The resources remain
dedicated to the circuit during the entire data transfer and the entire message follows the same path.
Circuit switching can be analogue or digital.

Advantages:

 Circuit is dedicated to the call – no interference, no sharing

 Guaranteed the full bandwidth for the duration of the call
 Guaranteed Quality of Service

Disadvantages:

 Inefficient – the equipment may be unused for a lot of the call, if no data is being sent, the dedicated
line still remains open
 Takes a relatively long time to set up the circuit
 During a crisis or disaster, the network may become unstable or unavailable.
 It was primarily developed for voice traffic rather than data traffic.

Message Switching:

In message switching, no physical copper path is established in advance between sender and receiver. First
data-block is stored in switching office and then forwarded later, one hop at a time. Each block is received
in its entirety.

Advantages:

 No limit on block size.

Disadvantages:

 Inefficient – must have disks to buffer long blocks

 During a crisis or disaster, the network may become unstable or unavailable.
 Useless for interactive traffic

Page 33 of 45
Note :

Computer Networks are USUALLY Packet Switched,

OCCASIONALLY Circuit Switched but
NEVER Message Switched.

Collisions:

When both PCs are transferring a packet to the network at the same time, a collision will result.
Minimizing collisions is a crucial element in the design and operation of networks. Increased collisions are
often the result of too many users on the network, which results in a lot of contention for network bandwidth.
This can slow the performance of the network from the user's point of view. Segmenting the network, where
a network is divided into different pieces joined together logically with a bridge or switch, is one way of
reducing an overcrowded network.

What is a network firewall?

A firewall is a system or group of systems that enforces an access control policy between two networks.
The actual means by which this is accomplished varies widely, but in principle, the firewall can be thought
of as a pair of mechanisms: one which exists to block traffic, and the other which exists to permit traffic.
Some firewalls place a greater emphasis on blocking traffic, while others emphasize permitting traffic.
Probably the most important thing to recognize about a firewall is that it implements an access control
policy. If you don't have a good idea of what kind of access you want to allow or to deny, a firewall really
won't help you. It's also important to recognize that the firewall's configuration, because it is a mechanism
for enforcing policy, imposes its policy on everything behind it. Administrators for firewalls managing the
connectivity for a large number of hosts therefore have a heavy responsibility.

Types of Servers:

Device Servers:

A device server is defined as a specialized, network-based hardware device designed to perform a single or
specialized set of server functions. It is characterized by a minimal operating architecture that requires no
per seat network operating system license, and client access that is independent of any operating system or
proprietary protocol. In addition the device server is a "closed box," delivering extreme ease of installation,
minimal maintenance, and can be managed by the client remotely via a Web browser.
Print servers, terminal servers, remote access servers and network time servers are examples of device
servers which are specialized for particular functions.

Print Servers:

Print servers allow printers to be shared by other users on the network. Supporting either parallel and/or
serial interfaces, a print server accepts print jobs from any person on the network using supported protocols
and manages those jobs on each appropriate printer. Print servers generally do not contain a large amount
of memory; printers simply store information in a queue. When the desired printer becomes available, they
allow the host to transmit the data to the appropriate printer port on the server. The print server can then
simply queue and print each job in the order in which print requests are received, regardless of protocol
used or the size of the job.

Page 34 of 45
Multiport Device Servers:

Devices that are attached to a network through a multiport device server can be shared between terminals
and hosts at both the local site and throughout the network. A single terminal may be connected to several
hosts at the same time (in multiple concurrent sessions), and can switch between them. Multiport device
servers are also used to network devices that have only serial outputs. A connection between serial ports on
different servers is opened, allowing data to move between the two devices.

Access Servers:

While Ethernet is limited to a geographic area, remote users such as traveling sales people need access to
network-based resources. Remote LAN access, or remote access, is a popular way to provide this
connectivity. Access servers use telephone services to link a user or office with an office network. Dial-up
remote access solutions such as ISDN or asynchronous dial introduce more flexibility. Dial-up remote
access offers both the remote office and the remote user the economy and flexibility of "pay as you go"
telephone services. ISDN is a special telephone service that offers three channels, two 64 Kbps "B" channels
for user data and a "D" channel for setting up the connection. With ISDN, the B channels can be combined
for double bandwidth or separated for different applications or users. With asynchronous remote access,
regular telephone lines are combined with modems and remote access servers to allow users and networks
to dial anywhere in the world and have data access. Remote access servers provide connection points for
both dial-in and dial-out applications on the network to which they are attached.

Network Time Servers:

A network time server is a server specialized in the handling of timing information from sources such as
satellites or radio broadcasts and is capable of providing this timing data to its attached network. Specialized
protocols such as NTP or udp/time allow a time server to communicate to other network nodes ensuring
that activities that must be coordinated according to their time of execution are synchronized correctly. GPS
satellites are one source of information that can allow global installations to achieve constant timing.

OPERATING SYSTEM ON THE BASIS OF SINGLE USER OS OR MULTI USERS OS.

 SINGLE USER OPERATING SYSTEM :

Single user O/S allows only one user to interact with the computer systems. It does not support the
concept of network of computers. e.g. Dos, win 95, Win 98, Win Millennium (standalone version),
Win XP(standalone version), Win Vista, etc.

 MULTI USER OPERATING SYSTEM OR NETWORK OF COMPUTERS :

Multi User O/S allows more than one users simultaneously to interact with the computer systems
i.e. multi user O/S supports the concept of network of computers. In the network of computer O/S,
one computer behaves like as server and other computer behaves like clients. The job of server is
to provide the services to the client like sharing of hardware e.g. printer, scanner, modem, etc. and
sharing of software e.g. files, library functions, messages, etc. e.g. Unix, Novel Netware, Win NT,
Win 2000, etc.

Page 35 of 45
 DISTRIBUTED OPERATING SYSTEM :
This type of Operating System is the special type of computer network OS, in which the control
does not reside at one place i.e. the control is distributed at various sites throughout the network.
e.g. Win NT.

Network Operating System Software

Some of the more popular Peer-to-Peer and Client/Server Network Operating Systems.

 Macintosh OSX

 Microsoft Windows 2000 Server

 Novell NetWare

 UNIX

 Microsoft Windows NT

Network OS Services:

There are four types of network services: system administration, user management, email and printing.

System Administration:

From a system administration perspective, the ability to control all the workstations from a central location
is the best network service. The administrator is responsible for deploying new software applications,
updating the operating systems, and maintaining the same versions of software programs on all the
workstations. Many firms lock the workstations, so only the system administrator can add new software or
run new programs. This increases the overall quality of the network and reduces staff time spent on
computer maintenance.

User Management:

User management is a range of services, from the creation of user names and passwords to the allocation
of rights, privileges, and access. For example, when a new staff member joins a department, the network
administrator must create a new account for this person to access the network services. Access to

Page 36 of 45
applications, files, services, and tools this person will require to complete his or her job must be provided
by the system administrator. This is known as user management and authentication.

E-Mail:

Email is a widely used productivity tool that requires connection to the Internet. In addition, many
organizations have a policy surrounding the email software that can be used, the maximum storage capacity,
and the file sizes that can be transmitted. Most organizations provide staff with a company-specific email
address, which requires the creation and maintenance of an email server.

Shared Printing:

Shared printing is one of the primary network services required in any organization. Instead of individual
printers at each desk, all the users can submit printing jobs to a central unit. This unit is often a multi-
function printer, scanner, and photocopier. In order to provide this type of network service, many firms
implement special printer management software to control the flow of documents and protect confidential
documents.

Duties of a System Administrator:

A system administrator, systems administrator, or sysadmin, is a person employed to maintain and operate
a computer system and/or network. System administrators may be members of an information technology
(IT) or Electronics and Communication Engineering department.

The duties of a system administrator are wide-ranging, and vary widely from one organization to another.
Sysadmins are usually charged with installing, supporting, and maintaining servers or other computer
systems, and planning for and responding to service outages and other problems. Other duties may include
scripting or light programming, project management for systems-related projects, supervising or training
computer operators, and being the consultant for computer problems beyond the knowledge of technical
support staff. To perform their job well, a system administrator must demonstrate a blend
of technical skills and responsibility.

A system administrator's responsibilities might include:

I. Analyzing system logs and identifying potential issues with computer systems.

II. Introducing and integrating new technologies into existing data center environments.

III. Performing routine audits of systems and software.

IV. Performing backups.

V. Applying operating system updates, patches, and configuration changes.

VI. Installing and configuring new hardware and software.

VII. Adding, removing, or updating user account information, resetting passwords, etc.

VIII. Answering technical queries.

IX. Responsibility for security.

Page 37 of 45
 X. Responsibility for documenting the configuration of the system.

XI. Troubleshooting any reported problems.

XII. System performance tuning.

XIII. Ensuring that the network infrastructure is up and running.

Right s and Privileges in a Network Operating System:

1) User rights are assigned to groups (or users). User rights include both privileges (such as Back Up
Files and Directories) and logon rights (such as Access this Computer from Network).

2) Access control permissions (such as Read, Write, Full Control, or No Access) are attached to OS
objects. In the case of Active Directory objects, access control can be defined not only for each object
in the directory but also for each property of each object.

3) Access token. Each time a user logs on, OS creates an access token. The access token is a representation
of the user account and contains the following elements:

a) Individual SID. Security identifier (SID) representing the logged-on user

b) Group SIDs. SIDs representing the logged-on user's group memberships

c) User Rights. Privileges (associated with each SID) granted to the user or to groups to which the
user belongs

4) When the user tries to access an object, OS compares each SID in the user's access token to entries in
an object's discretionary access control list (DACL) to determine whether the user has permission to
access the object and, if access is allowed, what type of access it is. In some cases, user rights in the
user's token may override the permissions listed in the DACL and access may be granted that way.

5) An access token is not updated until the next logon, which means that if you add a user to a group, the
user must log off and log on before the access token is updated.

6) Security identifier (SID). A SID is a code that uniquely identifies a specific user, group, or computer
to the OS security system. A user's own SID is always attached to the user's access token. When a user
is made a member of a group, the SID for that group is also attached to the user's access token.

Page 38 of 45
7) Access Control List (ACL). Each Active Directory object (as well as each file, registry key, and so
on) has two associated ACLs:
a) DACL. The discretionary access control list (DACL) is a list of user accounts, groups, and
computers that are allowed (or denied) access to the object.
b) SACL. The System Access Control List (SACL) defines which events (such as file access) are
audited for a user or group.

8) Access Control Entry (ACE). A DACL or SACL consists of a list of Access Control Entries (ACEs),
where each ACE lists the permissions granted or denied to the users, groups, or computers listed in the
DACL or SACL. An ACE contains a SID with a permission, such as Read access or Write access.
Windows 2000 combines access permissions—if you have Read access to an object because you are a
member of Group A and if you have Write access because you are a member of Group B, you have
both Read and Write access to the object. However, if you have No Access as a member of Group C,
you will not have access to the object.

Page 39 of 45
 GLOSSARY

10Base2 - Ethernet specification for thin coaxial cable, transmits signals at 10 Mbps (megabits per
second) with a distance limit of 185 meters per segment.

10Base5 - Ethernet specification for thick coaxial cable, transmits signals at 10 Mbps (megabits
per second) with a distance limit of 500 meters per segment.

10BaseF - Ethernet specification for fiber optic cable, transmits signals at 10 Mbps (megabits per
second) with a distance limit of 2000 meters per segment.

10BaseT - Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cable (category 3, 4, or 5), transmits
signals at 10 Mbps (megabits per second) with a distance limit of 100 meters per
segment.

100BaseT - Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cabling that is used to transmit data
at 100 Mbps (megabits per second) with a distance limit of 100 meters per segment.

1000BaseTX -Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cabling that is used to trasmit data
at 1 Gbps (gigabits per second) with a distance limitation of 220 meters per segment.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) - A network protocol that transmits data at a speed of 155
Mbps and higher. It is most often used to interconnect two or more local area networks.

AppleTalk - Apple Computer's network protocol originally designed to run over LocalTalk
networks, but can also run on Ethernet and Token Ring.

AUI Connector (Attachment Unit Interface) - A 15 pin connector found on Ethernet cards that
can be used for attaching coaxial, fiber optic, or twisted pair cable.

Backbone - A cable to which multiple nodes or workstations are attached.

Bit - Binary digit in the binary numbering system. Its value can be 0 or 1. In an 8-bit character
scheme, it takes 8 bits to make a byte (character) of data.

BNC Connector (Bayone-Neill-Concelman) - Standard connector used to connect 10Base2

coaxial cable.

Bridge - Devices that connect and pass packets between two network segments that use the same
communications protocol.

Cable - Transmission medium of copper wire or optical fiber wrapped in a protective cover.

Page 40 of 45
Client/Server - A networking system in which one or more file servers (Server) provide services;
such as network management, application and centralized data storage for workstations
(Clients).

CSMA/CA - Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Avoidance is a network access method in
which each device signals its intent to transmit before it actually does so. This prevents
other devices from sending information, thus preventing collisions from occurring
between signals from two or more devices. This is the access method used by
LocalTalk.

CSMA/CD - Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Detection is a network access method in
which devices that are ready to transmit data first check the channel for a carrier. If no
carrier is sensed, a device can transmit. If two devices transmit at once, a collision
occurs and each computer backs off and waits a random amount of time before
attempting to retransmit. This is the access method used by Ethernet.

Coaxial Cable - Cable consisting of a single copper conductor in the center surrounded by a plastic
layer for insulation and a braided metal outer shield.

Dumb Terminal - Refers to devices that are designed to communicate exclusively with a host
(main frame) computer. It receives all screen layouts from the host computer and sends
all keyboard entry to the host. It cannot function without the host computer.

E-mail - An electronic mail message sent from a host computer to a remote computer.

End User - Refers to the human executing applications on the workstation.

Ethernet - A network protocol invented by Xerox Corporation and developed jointly by Xerox,
Intel and Digital Equipment Corporation. Ethernet networks use CSMA/CD and run
over a variety of cable types at 10 Mbps (megabits per second).

Expansion Slot - Area in a computer that accepts additional input/output boards to increase the
capability of the computer.

Fast Ethernet - A new Ethernet standard that supports 100 Mbps using category 5 twisted pair or
fiber optic cable.

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) - A network protocol that is used primarily to
interconnect two or more local area networks, often over large distances.

Fiber Optic Cable - A cable, consisting of a center glass core surrounded by layers of plastic, that
transmits data using light rather than electricity. It has the ability to carry more
information over much longer distances.

File Server - A computer connected to the network that contains primary files/applications and
shares them as requested with the other computers on the network. If the file server is
dedicated for that purpose only, it is connected to a client/server network. An example

Page 41 of 45
 of a client/server network is Novell Netware. All the computers connected to a peer-
to-peer network are capable of being the file server. Two examples of peer-to-peer
networks are LANtastic and Windows for Workgroups.

Gigabit Ethernet - An Ethernet protocol that raises the transmission rates to 1 Gbps (gigabits per
second). It is primarily used for a high speed backbone of a network.

Gigabyte (GB) - One billion bytes of information. One thousand megabytes.

Hub - A hardware device that contains multiple independent but connected modules of network
and internetwork equipment. Hubs can be active (where they repeat signals sent
through them) or passive (where they do not repeat but merely split signals sent through
them).

Infrared - Electromagnetic waves whose frequency range is above that of microwaves, but below
that of the visible spectrum.

Intranet - Network internal to an organization that uses Internet protocols.

Internet - A global network of networks used to exchange information using the TCP/IP protocol.
It allows for electronic mail and the accessing ad retrieval of information from remote
sources.

LAN (Local Area Network) - A network connecting computers in a relatively small area such as
a building.

Linear Bus - A network topology in which each node attaches directly to a common cable.

LocalTalk - Apple Corporation proprietary protocol that uses CSMA/CA media access scheme
and supports transmissions at speeds of 230 Kbps (Kilobits per second).

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) - A network connecting computers over a large geographical
area, such as a city or school district.

MAU (Multistation Access Unit) - A Token Ring wiring hub.

Modem (Modulator/Demodulator) - Devices that convert digital and analog signals. Modems
allow computer data (digital) to be transmitted over voice-grade telephone lines (analog).

Multiplexer - A device that allows multiple logical signals to be transmitted simultaneously across
a single physical channel.

Network Modem - A modem connected to a Local Area Network (LAN) that is accessible from
any workstation on the network.

Network Interface Card (NIC) - A board that provides network communication capabilities to
and from a computer.

Page 42 of 45
Network Operating System (NOS) - Operating system designed to pass information and
communicate between more than one computer. Examples include AppleShare, Novell
NetWare, and Windows NT Server.

Node - End point of a network connection. Nodes include any device attached to a network such
as file servers, printers, or workstations.

Node Devices - Any computer or peripheral that is connected to the network.

Peer-to-Peer Network - A network in which resources and files are shared without a centralized
management source.

Physical Topology - The physical layout of the network; how the cables are arranged; and how
the computers are connected.

Point-to-Point - A direct link between two objects in a network.

Ports - A connection point for a cable.

Protocol -A formal description of a set of rules and conventions that govern how devices on a
network exchange information.

RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) - A configuration of multiple disks designed to

preserve data after a disk casualty.

RAM (Random Access Memory) - The working memory of a computer where data and programs
are temporarily stored. RAM only holds information when the computer is on.

Repeater - A device used in a network to strengthen a signal as it is passed along the network
cable.

Router -A device that routes information between interconnected networks. It can select the best
path to route a message, as well as translate information from one network to another.
It is similar to a superintelligent bridge.

SCSI (Small Computer Serial Interface) - An interface controller that allows several peripherals
to be connected to the same port on a computer.

Speed of Data Transfer - The rate at which information travels through a network, usually
measured in megabits per second.

Star Topology - LAN topology in which each node on a network is connected directly to a central
network hub or concentrator.

Switch - A "intelligent" type of hub, in that it sends packets only to the intended ports, rather than
all computers on the network.

Page 43 of 45
Tape Back-Up - Copying all the data and programs of a computer system on magnetic tape. On
tape, data is stored sequentially. When retrieving data, the tape is searched from the
beginning of tape until the data is found.

Terminator - A device that provides electrical resistance at the end of a transmission line. Its
function is to absorb signals on the line, thereby keeping them from bouncing back and
being received again by the network.

Token - A special packet that contains data and acts as a messenger or carrier between each
computer and device on a ring topology. Each computer must wait for the messenger
to stop at its node before it can send data over the network.

Token Ring - A network protocol developed by IBM in which computers access the network
through token-passing. Usually uses a star-wired ring topology.

Topology - There are two types of topology: physical and logical. The physical topology of a
network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals. Logical
topology is the method used to pass the information between workstations. Issues
involving logical topologies are discussed on the Protocol chapter

Transceiver (Transmitter/Receiver) - A Device that receives and sends signals over a medium. In
networks, it is generally used to allow for the connection between two different types
of cable connectors, such as AUI and RJ-45.

Tree Topology - LAN topology similar to linear bus topology, except that tree networks can
contain branches with multiple nodes.

Twisted Pair - Network cabling that consists of four pairs of wires that are manufactured with the
wires twisted to certain specifications. Available in shielded and unshielded versions.

USB (Universal Serial Bus) Port - A hardware interface for low-speed peripherals such as the
keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner, printer, and telephony devices.

WAN (Wide Area Network) - A network connecting computers within very large areas, such as
states, countries, and the world.

Workgroup - A collection of workstations and servers on a LAN that are designated to

communicate and exchange data with one another.

Workstation - A computer connected to a network at which users interact with software stored on
the network.

Page 44 of 45
Subjective Type Questions:

1. Make a list of the advantages and disadvantages of client-server and peer-to-peer networks.

2. What is the difference between a LAN and a WAN?

3. What is the difference between: file server and printer server

4. What are the advantages of fibre optic cables when connecting a network of computers?

5. Explain the difference between the Bus, Star and Ring methods of connecting a network of
computers.

6. What is the difference between the Internet and an Intranet?

7. What are the advantages of a network of computers over a number of stand-alone computers?

Page 45 of 45