Faculty of Engineering

CCST9016
Energy: Its Evolution and
Environmental Impacts

L3: Fossil Fuel Based Energy

Technologies
Dr. Match Wai Lun Ko
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University
The University of Hong Kong - of Hong Kong
Faculty of Engineering
matchko@hku.hk 1
 Rankine cycle, processes

Brayton cycle

Ideal Rankine Cycle Processes

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression in pump
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in turbine
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in condenser

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Advanced steam cycles, introduction

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 Adv steam cycles: reheat

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 Example

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 Example summary
P2 = 3 MPa P3 = 3 MPa
h2 = 387 kJ/kg T3 = 350 oC
s1 = s2 h3 = 3116 kJ/kg
s3 = 6.745 kJ/kgK

P1 = 75 kPa
P4 = 75 kPa
T1 = 91.76 oC
T4 = 91.76 oC
h1 = 384 kJ/kg
h4 = 2403 kJ/kg
v1 = 0.001037 m3/kg
s4 = s3
s1 = s2

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 Brayton cycle
• The Brayton cycle is the air-standard ideal cycle approximation for the gas-turbine
engine. This cycle differs from the Otto and Diesel cycles in that the processes making
the cycle occur in open systems or control volumes. Therefore, an open system, steady-
flow analysis is used to determine the heat transfer and work for the cycle.
• The open gas-turbine cycle can be modeled as a closed cycle, by utilizing the air-
standard assumptions. Here the compression and expansion processes remain the same,
but the combustion process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addition process from
an external source, and the exhaust process is replaced by a constant-pressure.

Open cycle Closed cycle

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 Brayton cycle
Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression (in compressor)
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in turbine)
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection

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 Example

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 Example summary
Pr2 = 11.09
Pr3 = 330.9
T2 = 540 K
T3 = 1300 K
h2 = 544.35 kJ/kg
h3 = 1396 kJ/kg
s3 = s4

Pr1 = 1.386
T1 = 300 K Pr4 = 41.36
h1 = 300 kJ/kg T4 = 700 K
s1 = s2 h4 = 789.37 kJ/kg

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 Mach number
V2 T0 V2 kR
T0 = T + = 1+ where c p =
2c p T 2c pT k −1

= 1+
( k − 1) V2
2 kRT
k −1 V
= 1+ Ma 2 define speed of sound c = kRT and Ma =
2 c

Note that the Mach number depends on the speed of sound,

which depends on the state of the fluid. Therefore, the Mach
number of an aircraft cruising at constant velocity in still air
may be different at different locations

Fluid flow regimes are often described in terms of the flow

Mach number. The flow is called sonic when Ma = 1, subsonic
when Ma < 1, supersonic when Ma > 1, hypersonic when Ma
>> 1, and transonic when Ma ~ 1.

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 Jet Engine
Gas-turbine engines are widely used to power aircraft because they are light and compact
and have a high power-to-weight ratio. Aircraft gas turbines operate on an open cycle called
a jet-propulsion cycle. The ideal jetpropulsion cycle differs from the simple ideal Brayton
cycle in that the gases are not expanded to the ambient pressure in the turbine. Instead, they
are expanded to a pressure such that the power produced by the turbine is just sufficient to
drive the compressor and the auxiliary equipment, such as a small generator and hydraulic
pumps. That is, the net work output of a jet-propulsion cycle is zero.
Brayton cycle

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 Ideal turbojet cycle.
The gases that exit the turbine at a relatively high pressure are subsequently accelerated in
a nozzle to provide the thrust to propel the aircraft. Also, aircraft gas turbines operate at
higher pressure ratios (typically between 10 and 25), and the fluid passes through a
diffuser first, where it is decelerated and its pressure is increased before it enters the
compressor.
Aircraft are propelled by accelerating a fluid in the opposite direction to motion. This is
accomplished by either slightly accelerating a large mass of fluid (propeller-driven engine)
or greatly accelerating a small mass of fluid ( jet or turbojet engine) or both (turboprop
engine).

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 Ideal turbojet cycle.
1–2 The pressure of air rises slightly as it is decelerated in the diffuser.
2–3 Air is compressed by the compressor.
3–4 It is mixed with fuel in the combustion chamber, where the mixture is burned at
constant pressure.
4–5 The high-pressure and high-temperature combustion gases partially expand in
the turbine, producing enough power to drive the compressor and other
equipment.
5–6 Finally, the gases expand in a nozzle to the ambient pressure and leave the
engine at a high velocity.

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 Ideal turbojet cycle.
The thrust developed in a turbojet engine is the unbalanced force that is caused by the
difference in the momentum of the low-velocity air entering the engine and the high-
velocity exhaust gases leaving the engine, and it is determined from Newton’s second law.
The pressures at the inlet and the exit of a turbojet engine are identical (the ambient
pressure); thus, the net thrust developed by the engine is

The power developed from the thrust of the engine is

called the propulsive power

The desired output in a turbojet engine is the power

produced to propel the aircraft and the required input is
the heating value of the fuel. The ratio of these two
quantities is called the propulsive efficiency

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