Digital Logic Families

Ref: R J Tocci, Digital Systems, Pearson Education

For course study only

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Chapter 8

• Digital IC technology has advanced rapidly from

integrations which can 1 million or more gates.
• ICs pack more circuitry in a small package, so
overall size of almost any system is reduced.
– Cost is reduced because of the economies of
mass-producing large volumes of similar devices.
• ICs have made digital systems more reliable by
reducing the number of external interconnections
from one device to another.
– Protected from poor soldering, breaks or shorts
in connecting paths on a circuit board, and other
physical problems.

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Chapter 8

• ICs cannot handle very large currents or voltage.

– Heat generated in such small spaces would cause
temperatures to rise beyond acceptable limits.
• For higher power levels, an interfacing circuit will be
needed—typically of components or special power ICs.
• ICs can’t easily implement certain devices such
as inductors, transformers, and large capacitors.
– Principally used to perform low-power circuit
operations—commonly called information processing.

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Chapter 8

• Various logic families differ in major components

in their circuitry.
– TTL and ECL use bipolar transistors as their major
circuit element.
– PMOS, NMOS, and CMOS use unipolar MOSFET
transistors.

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8-1 Digital IC Terminology

IC nomenclature & terminology

is fairly standardized.

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8-1 Digital IC Terminology

IC nomenclature & terminology

is fairly standardized.

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8-1 Digital IC Terminology – Fan Out

• A logic-circuit output is generally required to drive

several logic inputs.
– Sometimes all ICs are from the same logic family.
• But many systems have a mix of various logic families.
– The fan-out—loading factor—is the maximum number
of logic inputs an output can drive reliably.

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8-1 Digital IC Terminology – Propogation Delay

• A logic signal always experiences a delay going

through a circuit.
– The two propagation delay times are defined as:

Propagation
delays.

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8-1 Digital IC Terminology – Power Requirements

• Every IC requires a certain amount of electrical

power to operate.
– Supplied by one or more power-supply voltages
connected at VCC (TTL) or VDD (MOS devices).
– For many ICs, current drawn from the supply varies
depending on logic states of the circuits on the chip.

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8-1 Digital IC Terminology – Power Requirements

• The amount of power an IC requires is determined

by the current, ICC (or IDD) it draws from the supply.
– Actual power is the product ICC x VCC (IDD x VDD ).

In some logic circuits, average

current is computed based
on the assumption that gate
outputs are LOW half the
time and HIGH half the time.

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8-1 Digital IC Terminology – Power Requirements

• The amount of power an IC requires is determined

by the current, ICC (or IDD) it draws from the supply.
– Actual power is the product ICC x VCC (IDD x VDD ).

can be rewritten to calculate

average power dissipated:

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8-1 Digital IC Terminology – Noise

• Stray electric/magnetic fields can induce voltages

on the connecting wires between logic circuits
– Called noise, these unwanted, spurious signals can
sometimes cause unpredictable operation.

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8-1 Digital IC Terminology – Noise

• Noise immunity refers to the circuit’s ability to

tolerate noise without changes in output voltage.
– A quantitative measure is called noise margin.
High-state noise margin: Low-state noise margin:

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8-1 Digital IC Terminology – Invalid Voltage

• For proper operation, logic circuit input voltage

levels must be kept out of the indeterminate range.
– Lower than VIL(max) or higher than VIH (min).
• Invalid voltage will produce unpredictable output.
• It is important to know valid voltage ranges for the
logic family being used so invalid conditions can
be recognized when testing or troubleshooting.
• Logic families can be described by how current
flows between the output of one logic circuit and
the input of another.

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8-1 Digital IC Terminology – Current Sourcing/Sinking

• Current-sourcing action.
– When the output of gate 1 is HIGH, it supplies
current IIH to the input of gate 2.
• Which acts essentially as a resistance to ground.
– The output of gate 1 is acting as a source of
current for the gate 2 input.

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8-1 Digital IC Terminology – Current Sourcing/Sinking

• Current-sinking action.
– Input circuitry of gate 2 is represented as a resistance
tied to +VCC —the positive terminal of a power supply.
– When gate 1 output goes LOW, current will flow from
the input circuit of gate 2 back through the output
resistance of gate 1, to ground.
• Circuit output that drives the input of gate 2 must be
able to sink a current, IIL , coming from that input.
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8-1b Digital IC Families prior to TTL

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8-1b Digital IC Families prior to TTL

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8-2 The TTL Logic Family

• Most TTL circuits have a similar structure

– NAND and AND gates use multiple-emitter transistor
or multiple diode junction inputs.
– NOR and OR gates use separate input transistors.
• The input will be the cathode of a P-N junction
– A HIGH input will turn off the junction.
• Only a leakage current is generated.
– A LOW input turns on the junction.
• Relatively large current is generated.
• Most TTL circuits have some type of totem-pole
output configuration.

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8-2 The TTL Logic Family

The basic TTL logic circuit is the NAND gate.

Diode equivalent
for Q1 .

Basic TTL
NAND gate.

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8-2 The TTL Logic Family

TTL NAND gate LOW output

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8-2 The TTL Logic Family

• A TTL output acts as a current sink in the LOW

state because it receives current from the input of
the gate that it is driving.

Transistor Q4 of the driving

gate is on and essentially
“shorts” point X to ground.

LOW voltage at X forward-

biases the emitter–base
junction of Q1 & current
flows back through Q4.

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8-2 The TTL Logic Family

• A TTL output acts as a current sink in the LOW

state because it receives current from the input of
the gate that it is driving.
Q4 is performing a current-
sinking action—deriving its
current from the input
current (IIL) of the load gate.

Q4 is often called the current-

sinking transistor or pull-
down transistor because
it brings the output voltage
down to its LOW state.

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8-2 The TTL Logic Family

TTL NAND gate HIGH output

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8-2 The TTL Logic Family

• A TTL output acts as a current source in the HIGH

state—a small reverse-bias leakage current.

Transistor Q3 is supplying the

input current (IIH) required
by Q1 of the load gate.

Q3 is often called the current-

sourcing or pull-up transistor.

In more modern TTL series,

the pull-up circuit is made
up of two transistors.

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8-2 The TTL Logic Family

Internal circuit for a TTL NOR gate.

The NOR circuit does not use

a multiple-emitter transistor.

Each input is applied to

the emitter of a separate
transistor.

The NOR circuit uses

the same totem-pole
arrangement as the NAND
circuit on the output side

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8-3 TTL Data Sheets

• The first line of TTL ICs was the 54/74 series from
Texas Instruments—introduced in 1964.
• Manufacturers use the same numbering system.
– Prefix indicates manufacturer.
• SN – Texas Instruments.
• DM – National Semiconductor.
• S – Signetics.
– DM7402, SN7402, S7402 perform the same function.
• Data sheets contain electrical characteristics,
switching characteristics, and recommended
operating conditions.

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8-4 TTL Series Characteristics

Typical TTL series characteristics.

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8-5 TTL Loading and Fan-Out

• Fan-out refers to the load drive capability of an

IC output
– A TTL output has a limit on how much current it can
sink in the LOW state, or source in the HIGH state.
– Exceeding these currents will result in output voltage
levels outside specified ranges.
• Determining fan out
– Add the IIH for all inputs connected to an output.
• Sum must be less than the output IOH specification.
– Add the IIL for all inputs connected to an output.
• Sum must be less than the output IOL specification.

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8-5 TTL Loading and Fan Out

Currents when a TTL output is driving several inputs.

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8-6 Other TTL Characteristics

• Unconnected (floating) inputs.

– On any TTL IC, all of the inputs are 1s if they are
not connected to some logic signal.
• An input left unconnected, it is said to be floating.

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8-6 Other TTL Characteristics – Unused Inputs

• Frequently, not all inputs on a TTL IC are being

used in a particular application.
– A common example is when not all the inputs to a
logic gate are needed for the required logic function.
– Unused input can be connected to +5V through a
1k-Ohm resistor, so the logic level is a 1.
– A third possibility is where the unused input is tied
to a used input.

Three ways to handle unused logic inputs.

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8-6 Other TTL Characteristics – Tied-Together Inputs

• Two (or more) TTL inputs on the same gate

connected to form a common input will generally
represent a load that is the sum of the load
current rating of each individual input.
• The only exception is for NAND and AND gates.
– The LOW-state input load will be the same as a
single input—no matter how many inputs are tied
together.

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8-7 MOS Technology

• MOS technology derives its name from the basic

structure of a metal electrode, over an oxide
insulator, over a semi-conductor substrate.
– Transistors of MOS technology are field-effect
transistors—called MOSFETs.

The electric field on the metal electrode side of the oxide

insulator has an effect on the resistance of the substrate.

• Most of the MOS digital ICs are constructed

entirely of MOSFETs and no other components.
– MOSFETs are relatively simple and inexpensive
to fabricate, small, and consume very little power.

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8-7 MOS Technology

• The principal disadvantage of MOS devices is

their susceptibility to static-electricity damage.
– Although minimized by proper handling, TTL is
still more durable for laboratory experimentation.

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8-7 MOS Technology

• There are presently two general types of

MOSFETs—depletion and enhancement.
– MOS ICs use enhancement MOSFETs exclusively.

The direction of the arrow indicates either P- or N-channel. The symbols

show a broken line between the source and the drain to indicate there
is normally no conducting channel between these electrodes.

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8-7 MOS Technology – Basic MOSFET Switch

• An N-channel MOSFET is the basic element in a

family of devices known as N-MOS.
– Drain is always biased positive relative to the source.

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8-7 MOS Technology – Basic MOSFET Switch

• Gate-to-source voltage VGS is the input voltage.

– Used to control resistance between drain & source.
• Determines whether the device is on or off.

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8-7 MOS Technology – Basic MOSFET Switch

• The P-channel MOSFET—P-MOS—operates in

the same manner as the N-channel.
– Except that it uses voltages of opposite polarity.
• The drain is connected to the lower side of the
circuit so it is biased with a more negative
voltage relative to the source.

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8-7 MOS Technology – Basic MOSFET Switch

• To turn the P-MOSFET ON, a voltage lower than

the source by VT must be applied to the gate.
– Voltage at the gate, relative to the source, must be
negative.

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8-8 Complementary MOS Logic – CMOS Inverter

• P-MOS & N-MOS circuits began to dominate the

LSI and VLSI markets in the 1970s and 1980s.
– Use fewer components & are much simpler to
manufacture than TTL circuits.
• During this era, technology emerged that used
P-MOS & N-MOS transistors in the same circuit.
– Complementary MOS, or CMOS, technology.

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8-8 Complementary MOS Logic – CMOS Inverter

• The CMOS INVERTER has two MOSFETs in

series.
– The P-channel device source is connected to VDD .
– The N-channel device has its source connected to
ground—usually labeled VSS.

Basic CMOS INVERTER.

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8-8 Complementary MOS Logic – CMOS Inverter

• The CMOS INVERTER has two MOSFETs in

series.
– Gates of the two devices are connected together
as a common input.
– Drains are connected together as common output.

Basic CMOS INVERTER.

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8-8 Complementary MOS Logic

• A NAND gate is formed by modifying the basic

INVERTER.
Adding parallel P-channel &
series N-channel MOSFETs
to the basic INVERTER.

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8-8 Complementary MOS Logic

• A CMOS NOR gate.

Formed by adding a series

P-MOS and a parallel N-MOS
to the basic INVERTER.

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8-8 Complementary MOS Logic

• Two CMOS NOR gates or NAND gates can be

cross-coupled to form a simple SET-RESET latch
– Additional gating circuitry is used to convert the basic
SET-RESET latch to clocked D and J-K flip-flops.

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8-9 CMOS Series Characteristics - Terms

• CMOS ICs provide all TTL logic functions, and

special-purpose functions not provided by TTL.
• Terms used when ICs from different families or
series are to be used together or as replacements.
– Pin-compatible—two ICs are pin-compatible when
their pin configurations are the same.
– Functionally equivalent—ICs are functionally
equivalent when the logic functions they perform are
exactly the same.
– Electrically compatible—ICs are electrically
compatible when they can be connected directly to
each other without special measures to ensure
proper operation.
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8-9 CMOS Series Characteristics – IC Series

• The oldest CMOS series is the 4000 series by

RCA—functionally equivalent to Motorola 14000.
– Rarely used in new designs except when a special-
purpose IC is not available in other series.
• The 74HC/HCT series has a 10-fold increase in
switching speed, comparable to 74LS devices.
– Pin-compatible with, functionally equivalent to TTL
ICs with the same device number.
• The 74AC/ACT series is often referred to as ACL
for advanced CMOS logic.
– Functionally equivalent various TTL series, but not
pin-compatible with TTL.

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8-9 CMOS Series Characteristics – IC Series

• Series 74AHC/AHCT offers a natural migration

path from the HC series to faster, lower-power,
low-drive applications.
– Three times faster, with similar noise immunity
to HC without the over- under-shoot problems.
• BiCMOS combines the best of bipolar & CMOS
– Characteristics are integrated to produce an
extremely low-power, high-speed logic family.
• Limited to functions used in microprocessor
and bus interfacing applications.

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8-9 CMOS Series Characteristics – Power

• When devices using different supply voltages are

interconnected, special measures must be taken.
– The 4000/14000 series and 74C series devices
operate with VDD values ranging from 3 to 15 V.
– 74 series ICs operate over a much narrower range
of supply voltages—typically between 2 and 6 V.
– Lower-voltage series (2.5 or 3.3 V) are available.

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8-9 CMOS Series Characteristics – Power

• In general, CMOS devices have greater noise

margins than TTL.
• When a CMOS logic circuit is in a static state—not
changing—its power dissipation is extremely low.
– Ideally suited for applications using battery power.
• Power dissipation of a CMOS IC will be very low
as long as it is in a dc condition.
– PD will increase in proportion to the frequency at
which the circuits are switching states.

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8-9 CMOS Series Characteristics – Power Dissipation

• Each time a CMOS output switches from LOW

to HIGH, a transient charging current must be
supplied to the load capacitance.
– The combined input capacitances of any loads being
driven and the device’s own output capacitance.

Current spikes are drawn from VDD each

time the output switches from LOW to HIGH.
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8-9 CMOS Series Characteristics – Fan-Out

• CMOS inputs have an extremely large resistance

that draws essentially no current from the source.
– 1012 Ohms.

Each CMOS input,

typically presents a
5-pF load to ground.

This input capacitance

limits the number of
CMOS inputs that
one CMOS output
can drive.

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8-9 CMOS Series Characteristics – Switching Speed

• Although CMOS must drive relatively large load

capacitances, switching speed is somewhat faster.
– Due to low output resistance in each state.
• In the CMOS circuit, output resistance in the
HIGH state is the RON of the P-MOSFET.
– Typically 1-k Ohms or less.

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8-9 CMOS Series Characteristics – Static Sensitivity

• All electronic devices, to varying degrees, are

sensitive to damage by static electricity.
– MOS logic families are especially susceptible.

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8-11 Open Collector/Open Drain Outputs

TTL outputs modified this way

are called open-collector outputs.

CMOS outputs modified this way

are called open-drain outputs.
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8-11 Open Collector/Open Drain Outputs

Wired-AND operation
using open-collector gates.

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8-11 Open Collector/Open Drain Outputs

• A common use of open-collector/drain outputs is as

a buffer/driver.
– Logic circuit designed to have a greater output current
and/or voltage capability than an ordinary logic circuit.
• They allow a weaker output circuit to drive a heavy load.

An open-collector
buffer/driver drives a high-
current, high-voltage load.

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8-11 Open Collector/Open Drain Outputs

Open-collector outputs are

often used to drive indicator LEDs.

An open-collector output
can be used to drive
an LED indicator.

An open-drain
CMOS output.

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8-11 Open Collector/Open Drain Outputs

IEEE/ANSI symbology uses a distinctive

notation to identify open-collector/drain outputs.

Standard IEEE/ANSI designation

for an open-collector/drain output
is an underlined diamond.

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8-12 Tristate (Three-State) Logic Outputs

• The tristate configuration takes advantage of the

high-speed operation of the pull-up/ pull-down
output arrangement.
– While allowing outputs to be connected together
to share a common wire.
• Called tristate because it allows three possible
output states:
– HIGH, LOW, and high-impedance (Hi-Z).
• Hi-Z is a condition in which both pull-up & pull-
down transistors are turned OFF.
– The output terminal is a high impedance to both
ground and the power supply.
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8-12 Tristate (Three-State) Logic Outputs

• Devices with tristate outputs have an enable input.

– Often labeled E for enable or OE for output enable.

• When OE = 1, the circuit operates as a normal

INVERTER because the HIGH logic level at OE
enables the output.
– Output will be either HIGH or LOW, depending
on the input level.
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8-12 Tristate (Three-State) Logic Outputs

• Devices with tristate outputs have an enable input.

– Often labeled E for enable or OE for output enable.

• When OE = 0, output is disabled. It goes into Hi-Z

state with both transistors in nonconducting state.
– In this state, the output terminal is essentially an open
circuit (not connected to anything).

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8-12 Tristate (Three-State) Logic Outputs

• Outputs of tristate ICs can be connected together

without sacrificing switching speed.
– When tristate outputs are connected together,
only one of them should be enabled at one time.
• Two active outputs could fight for control of the
common wire.
• Many ICs are designed with tristate outputs.
– 74LS374 is an octal D-type FF register IC with tristate
outputs.

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8-12 Tristate (Three-State) Logic Outputs

• A tristate buffer is a circuit used to control the

passage of a logic signal from input to output
– Some tristate buffers invert the signal as passes.

Tristate noninverting buffers.

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8-12 Tristate (Three-State) Logic Outputs

IEEE/ANSI symbology to identify tristate outputs.

Standard IEEE/ANSI
designation for tristate
output is a triangle
pointing downward.
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8-16 IC Interfacing

• Interfacing means connecting output(s) of one

circuit/system to input(s) of another circuit/system.
• The simplest and most desirable interface circuit
between a driver and a load is a direct connection.
– Often a direct connection cannot be made due to
a difference in electrical characteristics.
• An interface circuit is connected between the driver
and the load, to condition the driver output signal
so it is compatible with requirements of the load.

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8-16 IC Interfacing

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8-16 IC Interfacing

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8-16 IC Interfacing

• Logic devices will be voltage-compatible, and no

interface will be necessary under the following
circumstances:

Nominal values for different families/series of digital devices.

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TTL Driving CMOS Driver Load

CMOS Driving TTL VOH VIH

VOL VIL
IOH IIH
IOL IIL
VDD/CC VDD/CC

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8-16 IC Interfacing

External pull-up resistor

is used when TTL drives CMOS.

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8-16 IC Interfacing

Equivalent CMOS output

circuits for both logic states.

Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
8-17 Mixed-Voltage Interfacing

• A substantial shift in voltage because driver & load

operate on different supply voltages requires a
voltage-level translator interface circuit.

The simplest way to

accomplish this is with
a buffer that has an
open drain—with
a pull-up resistor.

Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
8-17 Mixed-Voltage Interfacing

• A substantial shift in voltage because driver & load

operate on different supply voltages requires a
voltage-level translator interface circuit.

Another solution is
a dual-supply-level
translator circuit using
two different supply
voltages, one each
for inputs & outputs,
translating between
the two levels.

Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
8-17 Mixed-Voltage Interfacing

• A substantial shift in voltage because driver & load

operate on different supply voltages requires a
voltage-level translator interface circuit.
Another common solution is an interface using a
buffer from a series that can withstand higher input.

A low-voltage series
with 5-V tolerant
inputs
as an interface.

Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved
Thanks

Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved