Anand Law College,Anand.

Name : Mrugesh R Thakkar

Designation : Adhyapak Sahayak
Subject : Research Methodology
What is research?

 Research can be defined as the search for knowledge or as any

systematic investigation to establish facts.
 Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a
particular concern or research problem using scientific
methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert
Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain,
predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It involves
inductive and deductive methods.”


Purpose of Research :

 Identify potential and new customers

 Understand existing customers
 Set pragmatic goals
 Develop productive market strategies
 Address business challenges
 Put together a business expansion plan
 Identify new business opportunities
Characteristics of Research

 systematic
 logical
 empirical
 reductive
 replicable
Types of Research
 Pure and Applied Research
 Exploratory or Formulative Research
 Descriptive Research
 Diagnostic Study
 Evaluation Studies
 Action Research
 Experimental Research
 Analytical study or statistical Method
 Historical Research
 Surveys
 Case Study
Pure and Applied Research

Pure
 it is the study of search of knowledge.

Applied
 It is the study of finding solution to a problem.
 Purpose of Pure and Applied Research
 Pure
 It can contribute new facts
 It can put theory to the rest
 It may aid in conceptual clarification
 It may integrate previously existing theories.
Applied
 It offers solutions to many practical problems.
 To find the critical factors in a practical problem.
Exploratory or Formulative Research

Exploratory
Exploratory research is preliminary study of an unfamiliar
problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge.
Purpose :

 To Generate new ideas

 To increase the researcher’s familiarity with the problem
 To Make a precise formulation of the problem
 To gather information for clarifying concepts
 To determine whether it is feasible to attempt the study.
Descriptive Research

 Descriptive study is a fact- finding investigation with adequate

interpretation.
 It is the simplest type of research.
 It is designed to gather descriptive information and provides
information for formulating more sophisticated studies
 Data are collected using observation, interview and mail
questionnaire.
Purpose

 It can focus directly on a theoretical point.

 It can highlight important methodological aspects of data
collection and interpretation.
 It obtained in a research may be useful for prediction about
areas of social life outside in the boundaries of research.
 Descriptive studies are valuable in providing facts needed for
planning social action programmes.
Diagnostic Study

 It is directed towards discovering what is happening, why is it

happening and what can be done about.
 It aims at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible
solutions for it.
Purpose

 This study may also be concerned with discovering and testing

whether certain variables are associated.
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or
with which it is associated with something else.
Evaluation Studies

 It is one type of applied research.

 It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic
programmes implemented or for assessing the impact of
developmental projects area.
 The determination of the results attained by some activity
designed to accomplish some valued goal or objectives.
Purpose

 It directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an

activity and its performance.
 To specify its attributes and conditions required for its success.
Action Research

 Researcher attempts to study action. E.g. Eradication of

Malariya, Maritime Navigation
 Action research is a reflective process of progressive problem
solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as
part of a "community of practice" to improve the way they
address issues and solve problems
Purpose

 A baseline survey of the pre-action situation

 A feasibility study of the proposed action programme
 Planning and launching the programme
 Concurrent evaluation of the programme
 Making modifications and changes in the programme.
Experimental Research

 Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such as

sociology and psychology, physics, chemistry, biology and
medicine etc.

 It is a systematic and scientific approach to research in which

the researcher manipulates one or more variables, and controls
and measures any change in other variables.
Purpose

 Experiments are conducted to be able to predict phenomenon.

 To maintain control over all factors
 A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to test
his hypothesis
Analytical Study

 Analytical study is a system of procedures and techniques of

analysis applied to quantitative data.
 A system of mathematical models or statistical techniques
applicable to numerical data.
 Ex. Scientometrics
Purpose

 It aims at testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting

relationship.
 It concentrates on analyzing data in depth and examining
relationships from various angles by bringing in as many
relevant variables as possible in the analysis plan.
Historical Research

 The systematic collection and evaluation of data related to past

occurrences in order to describe causes, effects, and trends of
those events that may help explain present events and
anticipate future events.
 Data is often archival-including newspaper clippings,
photographs, etc.- and may include interviews.
Purpose

 To draw explanations and generalizations from the past trends

in order to understand the present and to anticipate the future.
 It enables us to grasp our relationship with the past and to plan
more intelligently for the future.
 The past contains the key to the present and the past and the
present influences the future.
 It helps us in visualizing the society as a dynamic organism
and its structures and functions as evolving, steadily growing
and undergoing change and transformation.
Survey Research

 Survey research is one of the most important areas of

measurement in applied social research. The broad area of
survey research encompasses any measurement procedures that
involve asking questions of respondents. A "survey" can be
anything form a short paper-and-pencil feedback form to an
intensive one-on-one in-depth interview.
Purpose

 It is always conducted in a natural setting.

 It seeks responses directly from the respondents.
 It can cover a very large population
 A survey may involve an extensive study or an intensive study.
 A survey covers a definite geographical area, a city, district,
state
Case Study

 A case study is a research methodology common in social

science.
 It is based on an in-depth investigation of a single individual,
group, or event to explore causation in order to find underlying
principles
Purpose

 To examine limited number of variables

 case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal
examination of a single instance or event.
 It provides a systematic way of looking at events, collecting
data, analyzing information, and reporting the results
Field research

 Field research has traditionally been thought different from

methods of research conducted in a laboratory or academic
setting.
Purpose
 The advantages of field research are that people are closer to
real world conditions and design the research in the best way
to discover the particular information required.
Research Design

 The term “research design” means ‘drawing for research’.

 It is a systematic planning of conducting research.
 It aims to achieve goals of the research.
Definition

 ‘as the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of

data in a manner that aims to combine the relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure’-by Jahoda

 ‘a master plan, specifying the methods and procedures for

collecting and analyzing the needed information’-by Zikmund
Need and Purpose

 It helps in smooth sailing of the research process.

 It saves the money, manpower and materials.
 It helps the researchers for advance planning and avoids
duplication.
 It helps to modify the research if any difficulties.
 It gives reality to research.
Research Design Process

 Selection of research topic/problem,

 Framing research design,
 Framing sampling design,
 Collection of data,
 Data analysis/editing, coding, processing and preservation
 Writing research reports
Characteristics of Good Research
Design

 Theory-Grounded,
 Environment,
 Feasibility of Implementation,
 Redundancy,
 Efficient.

Cont…
 It should be flexible
 It should be economical
 It should be unbiased
 It should fulfill the objectives of the research
 It should be more appropriate to all the aspects of research.

Cont…
 It should guide him to achieve correct results.
 It provides scientific base for his research.
 It also should facilitate to complete the research work within
the stipulated time.
Functions of Research Design

 It provides a blueprint of research.

 It limits (dictates) the boundaries of the research activities.
 It enables investigation to anticipate potential problems
Components of Research Design

 Title of the investigation

 Purpose of the study
 Review of related literature
 Statement of the problem
 Scope of the investigation

Cont…
 Objectives of the study
 Variables
 Hypothesis
 Selection of sample
 Data Collection
 Analysis of data
Types of Research Design

 Experimental Designs
 Non- Experimental Designs
Experimental Designs

 There are two types

Quasi-experimental
Experimental
Non-Experimental Design

 Case study designs/method.

 Content analysis.
 Ethnography.
 Focus groups.
 Network analysis and sociometry.
Hypothesis

 The purpose of hypothesis testing is to determine whether

there is enough statistical evidence in favor of a certain belief
about a parameter.
 An hypothesis is a preliminary or tentative explanation or
postulate by the researcher of what the researcher considers the
outcome of an investigation will be. It is an
informed/educated guess.
 It indicates the expectations of the researcher regarding certain
variables. It is the most specific way in which an answer to a
problem can be stated.
Define Hypothesis

 A tentative statement about a population parameter that might

be true or wrong
The Difference Between An Hypothesis And A Problem

 Both an hypothesis and a problem contribute to the body of knowledge which supports or
refutes an existing theory.
 An hypothesis differs from a problem.
 A problem is formulated in the form of a question; it serves as the basis or origin from
which an hypothesis is derived.
 An hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem.
 A problem (question) cannot be directly tested, whereas an hypothesis can be tested and
verified.
When is an Hypothesis Formulated

 An hypothesis is formulated after the problem has been stated

and the literature study has been concluded.
 It is formulated when the researcher is totally aware of the
theoretical and empirical background to the problem.
Purpose and Function of Hypothesis :

 It offers explanations for the relationships between those

variables that can be empirically tested.
 It furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient background
knowledge to enable him/her to make suggestions in order to
extend existing knowledge.
 It gives direction to an investigation.
 It structures the next phase in the investigation and therefore
furnishes continuity to the examination of the problem.
Characteristics of Hypothesis :

 It should have elucidating power.

 It should strive to furnish an acceptable explanation of the
phenomenon.
 It must be verifiable.
 It must be formulated in simple, understandable terms.
 It should corresponds with existing knowledge.
 Types of Hypothesis

1. Descriptive Hypothesis :
 These are propositions that describe the characteristics ( such as size, form
or distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an object, person,
organization etc. ,
e.g., The rate of unemployment among arts graduates is higher than that of
commerce graduates. The educational system is not oriented to human
resource needs of a country.
2. Relational Hypothesis :
 These are propositions which describe the relationship between tow
variables.
e. g. , Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation
Upper – class people have fewer children than lower class people.
3. Causal Hypothesis
 It state that the existence of, or a change in, one variable Causes or leads to an effect
on another variable.
 The first variable is called the independent variable, and the latter the dependent
variable.
 When dealing with causal relationships between variables the researcher must
consider the direction in which such relationship flow
e.g: which is cause and which is effect
4. Working Hypothesis
 While planning the study of a problem, hypotheses are formed.
 Initially they may not be very specific. In such cases, they are referred to as ‘
working hypotheses’ which are subject to modification as the investigation
proceeds.
Null Hypothesis
 This hypotheses are formulated for testing statistical significance, since, this form
is a convenient approach to statistical analysis. As the test would nullify the null
hypotheses.
e.g., : There is a relationship between a family’s income and expenditure on
recreation, a null hypothesis may state: There is no relationship between families
income level and expenditure on recreation.
6. Statistical Hypothesis
 These are statements about a statistical population. These are derived from a
sample. These are quantitative in nature in that they are numerically measurable
eg: Group A is older than B’
Common Sense Hypothesis
 It state the existence of empirical uniformities perceived through day to day
observations.
e.g., “ Shop-assistants in small shops lack motivation”
8. Complex Hypothesis
 These aim at testing the existence of logically derived relationships between
empirical uniformities.
e.g., In the early stage human ecology described empirical uniformities in the distribution
of land values, industrial concentrations, types of business and other phenomena.
9. Analytical Hypothesis
 It concerned with the relationship of analytic variables. These hypotheses occur at
the highest level of abstraction.
 These specify relationship between changes in one property and changes in another.
Eg., The study of human fertility might show empirical regularities by wealth, education,
region, and religion.
Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

 Conceptual Clarity
 Specificity
 Testability
 Availability of Techniques
 Theoretical relevance
 Consistency
 Objectivity
 Simplicity
Sources of Hypothesis

 Theory
 Observation
 Analogies
 Intuition and personal experience
 Findings of studies
 State of Knowledge
 Culture
 Continuity of Research
Sampling

Sampling is the process

of selecting a small number of elements
from a larger defined target group
of elements such that
the information gathered
from the small group will allow judgments
to be made about the larger groups.
Basics of Sampling Theory

Population

Element

Defined target
population

Sampling unit

Sampling frame
 Sampling Error

Sampling error is any type of bias

that is attributable to mistakes
in either drawing a sample or
determining the sample size.
Developing a Sampling Plan

1. Define the Population of Interest

2. Identify a Sampling Frame (if possible)
3. Select a Sampling Method
4. Determine Sample Size
5. Execute the Sampling Plan
Defining Population of Interest

 Population of interest is entirely dependent on Management

Problem, Research Problems, and Research Design.
 Some Bases for Defining Population:
 Geographic Area
 Demographics
 Usage/Lifestyle
 Awareness
Sampling Frame

 A list of population elements (people, companies, houses,

cities, etc.) from which units to be sampled can be selected.
 Difficult to get an accurate list.
 Sample frame error occurs when certain elements of the
population are accidentally omitted or not included on the list.
Sampling Methods

Probability Nonprobability
sampling sampling
 Types of Sampling Methods
Probability Nonprobability
• Simple random sampling • Convenience sampling
• Systematic random sampling • Judgment sampling
• Stratified random sampling • Quota sampling
• Cluster sampling • Snowball sampling
 Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is a method of

probability sampling in which
every unit has an equal nonzero
chance of being selected.
 Systematic Random Sampling

Systematic random sampling is a

method of
probability sampling
in which the defined
target population is ordered
and the sample is selected
according to position using a skip interval
Steps in Drawing a Systematic Random Sample

 1: Obtain a list of units that contains an acceptable frame of the target population

 2: Determine the number of units in the list and the desired sample size

 3: Compute the skip interval

 4: Determine a random start point

 5: Beginning at the start point, select the units by choosing each unit that corresponds to
the skip interval
 Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified random sampling is a

method of
probability sampling
in which the population is divided
into different subgroups and samples
are selected from each.
 Steps in Drawing a Stratified Random
Sample

 1: Divide the target population into homogeneous subgroups or strata

 2: Draw random samples fro each stratum
 3: Combine the samples from each stratum into a single sample of the target
population
Cluster Sampling
 Cluster sampling is a sampling technique used when "natural" groupings are
evident in a statistical population.
 It is often used in marketing research.
 It divide population into Comparable groups: Schools, Cities etc..
 cluster sampling is to reduce the average cost per interview
 the technique given more accurate results when most of the variation in the
population is within the groups,
Nonprobability Sampling Methods

Convenience sampling relies

upon convenience and access

Judgment sampling relies upon belief

that participants fit characteristics

Quota sampling emphasizes representation

of specific characteristics

Snowball sampling relies upon respondent

referrals of others with like characteristics
 Convenience samples: samples drawn at the convenience of the interviewer. People tend
to make the selection at familiar locations and to choose respondents who are like
themselves.
 Judgment samples: samples that require a judgment or an “educated guess” on the part
of the interviewer as to who should represent the population. Also, “judges” (informed
individuals) may be asked to suggest who should be in the sample.
 Quota samples: samples that set a specific number of certain types of individuals to be
interviewed
 snowball sampling: is a technique for developing a research sample where existing study
subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances.
Factors to Consider in Sample Design

Research objectives Degree of accuracy

Resources Time frame

Knowledge of
target population Research scope

Statistical analysis needs

Data Collection

 Data collection possibilities are wide and varied with any one
method of collection not inherently better than any other
 Each has pros and cons that must be weighed up in view of a
rich and complex context

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The Data Collection Process

 All methods of collection require rigorous and systematic

design and execution that includes

 thorough planning
 well considered development
 effective piloting
 weighed modification
 deliberate implementation and execution
 appropriate management and analysis

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Surveys

 Surveying involves gathering information from individuals

using a questionnaire

 Surveys can
 reach a large number of respondents
 generate standardized, quantifiable, empirical data - as
well as some qualitative data
 and offer confidentiality / anonymity

 Designing survey instruments capable of generating credible

data, however, can be difficult

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Survey Types

 Surveys can be

 descriptive or explanatory
 involve entire populations or samples of populations
 capture a moment or map trends
 can be administered in a number of ways

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Survey Construction

 Survey construction involves

 formulating questions and response categories

 writing up background information and instruction
 working through organization and length
 determining layout and design

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Interviewing

 Interviewing involves asking respondents a series of open-

ended questions
 Interviews can generate both standardized quantifiable data,
and more in-depth qualitative data
 However, the complexities of people and the complexities of
communication can create many opportunities for
miscommunication and misinterpretation

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Interview Types

 Interviews can range from

 formal to informal
 structured to unstructured
 can be one on one or involve groups

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Conducting Interviews

 When conducting your interviews you will need to

 question, prompt, and probe in ways that help you gather
rich data
 actively listen and make sense of what is being said
 manage the overall process

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Observation

 Observation relies on the researchers’ ability to gather data

though their senses - and allows researchers to document
actual behaviour rather than responses related to behaviour

 However, the observed can act differently when surveilled, and

observations can be tainted by a researcher’s worldview

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Observation Types

 Observation can range from

 non-participant to participant
 candid to covert
 from structured to unstructured

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The Observation Process

 The observation process is sometimes treated casually, but is a

method that needs to be treated as rigorously as any other
 The process should include planning, observing, recording,
reflecting, and authenticating

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Experimentation

 Experimentation explores cause and effect relationships by

manipulating independent variables in order to see if there is a
corresponding effect on a dependent variable.

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Experimentation

 Pure experimentation requires both a controlled environment

and the use of a randomly assigned control group.
 This can be difficult to achieve in human centred experiments
conducted in the real-world.

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Real-World Experiments

 There are many experiments that can only be carried out in the
messy uncontrolled environments of the real-world, so the
search for cause and effect will require trade-offs between real-
world contexts and a controlled environment.

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Questionnaire surveys (includes mail)
Advantages:

• Quick and easy to administer.

• Can get a large amount of information in a short time.
• Allows for employee participation.
• Does not require trained interviewer.
• Relatively less expensive.

Disadvantages:

• Quality of information related to the quality of the questionnaire.

• Must have high school reading and writing ability to complete one.
• Often needs follow-up interview or observation.
• May be difficult to construct.
• May have low response rate.
• Responses may be incomplete.
• Responses may be difficult to interpret (open-ended)

Online surveys:
• The use of the Internet has made a huge difference to the way surveys are
conducted and has
become a science unto itself.
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• quick to implement. Lower cost, higher
Face-to-face interviews :
Most informative method of qualitative data collection because the
human interaction of face-to-face interviews provides the opportunity to probe for
insights and build on responses for greater value.
Door-to-door: People are contacted at home and in person (abandoned in Developed
due to high cost of transport, staff)
Street / shopping mall intercepts: Popular in Developed Economies (some Malls
consider a nuisance).
Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the
researcher has ready access to anyone on the planet who has a telephone.
Disadvantages are that the response rate is not as high as the face-to- face interview
but considerably higher than the mailed questionnaire. The sample may be biased to
the extent that people without phones are part of the population about whom the
researcher wants to draw inferences.

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Web based questionnaires :
A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet based
research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click on an
address that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire. This type
of research is often quicker and less detailed. Some disadvantages of this method
include the exclusion of people who do not have a computer or are unable to access
a computer. Also the validity of such surveys are in question as people might be in a
hurry to complete it and so might not give accurate responses.

Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal

interviewing, but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along
a laptop or hand-held computer to enter the information directly into the database.
This method saves time involved in processing the data, as well as saving the
interviewer from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires. However, this type of
data collection method can be expensive to set up and requires that interviewers have
computer and typing skills.

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