Chapter-08

Human health and diseases

Health: health is not simply mean ‘Absence of disease' Or ‘physical fitness’.

Health is defined as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being.
When people are healthy
• They are more efficient at work.
• This increases productivity band brings economic prosperity.
• Health increases longevity bof people and reduces infant and maternal
mortality.
Factors responsible for maintenance of Good health:
• Balanced diet
• Personal hygiene
• Regular exercise, meditation, yoga etc. are very important. Yoga has been
practiced since time to achieve physical and mental health.
To achieve good health conditions some more aspects to be added are :
• Awareness about diseases
• Vaccination
• Proper disposal of wastes
• Control of vectors (e.g. Mosquitoes)
• Maintenance of Hygienic food and water resources etc.
Diseases: “A condition in which improper functioning of one or more organs or
systems of the body is adversely affected, give rise to various unusual signs and
symptoms “.
OR
It can be defined as the malfunctioning of the body or a part of it due to one
reason or the other.
Classification of diseases:
The diseases are broadly classified into three types
1) Communicable diseases (infectious diseases) : These diseases are easily
transmitted from one person to another. They are caused by pathogens
such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoan, flatworm and round worms.
Infectious diseases are very common.
2) Non- communicable diseases( Non-infectious diseases) : These diseases
remain confined to the person who develops them and do not spreads to
others. Non communicable diseases are of four types:
A) Deficiency diseases: These diseases are caused by deficiency of
nutrients, minerals, vitamins and hormones. E.g.: beriberi etc.
B) Degenerative diseases: These diseases are due to malfunctioning of
some of the important organs . E. g.: Cardio vascular diseases.
C) Allergies: These diseases are caused when the body becomes
hypersensitive to certain foreign substance. E. g : Asthma.
D) Cancer: It is caused due to controlled growth of certain tissues in the
body. Among non- infectious diseases , cancer is the major cause of
death.
3) Congenital diseases (genetic disorders) : They are some anatomical or
physiological abnormalities present from birth.
Common diseases in humans :
• It includes a wide range of organisms belonging to bacteria, viruses, fungi,
protozoans, helminthes etc.
• The pathogens can enter our body by various means, mutliply and interfere
with normal vital activities, resulting in morphological and functional
damage.
• The pathogens have to adopt to life within the environment of the host.
• The pathogens that enter the gut must have the ability to survive in the
stomach at low PH and resisting the various digestive enzymes.
Bacterial diseases( Typhoid and Pneumonia) :
1) TYPHOID: It is a common bacterial disease caused by a rod shaped
bacterium. The disease is common in children of age group of 1-15 yrs.
 Pathogen: Salmonella typhi
Organs effected: small intestine, migrate to other organs through blood.
Methods of Transmission: Contamination of food and water.
Symptoms :
• Sustained high fever(39° - 40° C).
• Weakness, stomach pain, constipation, headache and loss of
appetite.
• Intestinal perforation and death may occur.
• Liver and spleen become enlarged.
Test: Widal test
Preventive and control measures: Since disease spread through contaminated
water and food all measures for disinfecting water supplies and preventing
contamination of food by flies and dust are to be adopted. The persons who are
engaged as cooks or serve in eating establishments should be medically examined
to ensure that they are not carriers of typhoid and further to impress upon them
to wash their hands with soaps before handling food.
Typhoid vaccine provides immunity for about three years. The disease can be
treated with antibiotic drugs.
2) Pneumonia : It is a bacterial disease.
Pathogen: Streptococcus pneumoniae OR Haemophilus influenzae
Organs effected: Alveoli of lungs, alveoli get filled with fluid.
Mode of transmission : A healthy person acquires the infection by inhaling
the droplets aerosols released by an infected person or even by sharing
glasses and utensils with an infected person. The pathogen get lodged in
the bronchioles. Alveolar walls inflame and secrete a protein rich fluid.
Symptoms:
• Fever, chills, cough and headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle aches,
and shortness of breath.
• In severe cases the lips and finger nails turn grey to bluish colour,
lack of oxygen in the blood and high fever.
Cure: The disease can be treated with antibiotic drugs.

Viral diseases :
1) Common cold :
Pathogen : Rhino virus
Organs effected: nose and respiratory passage.
Method of transmission: Direct inhalation of droplets ( aerosols) from
cough and sneeze of infected person. Through contaminated object like
pen, books, cups, computer key board. Etc.
Symptoms: Common cold is characterised by nasal congestion and
discharges, sore throat, hoarseness, cough, headache, tiredness etc which
usually last for 3-7 days.
Cure: There is no specific curative drug for this disease, but rest gives early
relief.
Protozoan diseases ( Amoebiasis and Malaria) :
1) Amoebiasis:
Pathogen: Entamoeba histolytica a protozoan parasite
Organs infected: large intestine of man
Method of transmission: house flies acts as mechanical carrier. Infection
occurs when a person takes food contaminated with cysts of Entamoeba .
Symptoms:
• Constipation, abdominal pain and cramps.
• Stools with excess mucous and blood clots.
Preventive measures: The important measures that can control amoebiasis
include
• General cleanliness and washing of hands with soap before handling food.
• Protection of food and drinks from dust, flies and cockroaches.
• Washing of vegetables and fruits before eating.
• Disposal of human faeces through underground sewage system.
• Adequate cooking of food to destroys the cysts.
Treatment : Administration of antiamoebic medicines.
Malaria:
Pathogen: Plasmodium (P.vivax, P. malariae, P. ovale, P. flaciparum)
[Note: Malignant malaria caused by P. flaciparum is fatal.]
Organs effected: Liver and RBC
Method of transmission: By biting of female Anopheles mosquito ( vector)
Symptoms: High fever, chill, fever occurs on every alternate day, vomiting.
Preventive and control measures: The measures to control malaria are of 3 types:
• Prevention of infection - 1) Prevention against mosquito bites- Mosquito
nets, mosquito repellent, creams, oils etc. should used to prevent mosquito
bites. 2) Use of anti malarial drugs- People living in malaria infected regions
are advised to take small dose of anti – malaria drugs such as quinine
paludrine etc.
• The eradication of vector prevents transmission of the diseases.
• Treatment of the patient: patient should be treated with anti- malarial
drug. Quinine is the oldest anti malarial drug extracted from the bark of
cinchona tree.
Life cycle of malaria parasite ( Plasmodium) :
❖ Life cycle of plasmodium starts with inoculation of sporozoites ( infective
stage) through the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquito.
❖ The parasite initially multiplied within the liver cells and then attack the red
blood cells ( RBCs) resulting in their rupture.
❖ There is a release of toxic substances called haemozoin from the ruptured
RBCs which is responsible for the chill and high fever recurring every 3- 4
hrs..
❖ From the infected human the parasites enters into the body of Anopheles
mosquito during biting and sucking blood.
❖ Further development takes place in the body of Anopheles mosquito.
❖ The female mosquito takes up gametocytes with the blood meal.
❖ Formation of gametes and fertilization takes place in the intestine of
mosquito.
❖ The zygote develops further and forms thousands of sporozoites which
migrated into the salivary gland of mosquito.
❖ When the mosquito bite another human sporozoites are injected.
❖ The malaria parasite requires two hosts – human and Anopheles, to
complete their life cycle.
Helminth Diseases ( Nematode disease) :
Ascariasis:
Pathogen: Ascariasis lumbricoides (nematode) is a parasitic round worm.
Organs affected : Intestine of man
Method of transmission: Contaminated water, vegetables, fruits.
Symptoms:
❖ Internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anaemia
❖ Blockage of the intestinal passage .
Preventive and control measures: Since the eggs of ascaris are passed out in the
faeces of the patient and infest soil and water, utmost care should be taken in the
disposal of faecal matter. Vegetables and fruits should be washed properly before
eating.
The disease can be treated by administering anthelminthic drugs.

Filariasis Or Elephantiasis:
Pathogen: Wuchereria (W.bancrofti and W. Malayi)
Organs affected: lymphatic vessels of the lower limbs, genital organs.
Method of transmission: biting of infected female culex mosquito.
Symptoms:
❖ Chronic inflammation of the organs where they live for many years.
❖ Abnormal swelling of lower limb, scrotum, penis.
❖ Hence the diseases named as elephantiasis or Filariasis.
Preventative and control measures:
❖ Eradication of mosquitoes and their breeding places.
❖ Protection against mosquito bites.
 ❖ A drug diethylcarbamazine kill the microfilariae and can be taken as
prophylactic measures.
Fungal disease:
Ring worm disease:
Pathogen: Microsporum, Trichophyton and epidermophyton ( fungi)
Organs effected: Skin, nails, folds of skin, groin.
Methods of transmission: Acquired from the soil, using towel, clothes or even
comb of infected individuals.
Symptoms:
❖ Appearance of dry, scaly lesions in skin nails and scalp.
❖ Lesion companied with intense itching.
❖ Heat and moisture help these fungi to grow.
Immunity: The overall ability of the host to fight with the disease causing
organism by immune system is called immunity.
OR
Immunity refers to the resistance of a host to pathogens and their toxic products.
Immunity is of two types :
1) Innate immunity
2) Acquired immunity

1) Innate immunity: Innate immunity is non- specific type of defence, that is

present at the time of birth. This is accomplished by providing different
types of barriers which prevent the entry of foreign agents into our body.
Innate immunity consists of four types of barriers such as
A) Physical barrier
B) Physiological barrier
C) Cellular barrier
D) Cytokine barrier
A) Physical barrier: Skin on our body is the main barrier which prevents
entry of micro – organism’s. Mucus secreted by the mucous
membrane of respiratory tract, gastro- intestinal tract and urogenital
tract also help in trapping microbes entering into our body.
B) Physiological barrier: They Include
❖ The oil and sweat secreted by sebaceous and sudoriferous
glands contain fatty acids and lactic acid which make the skin
surface acidic. This does not allow the micro- organisms to
establish on the skin.
❖ Acid of the stomach kills most of the micro – organisms
ingested with food.
❖ The enzyme lysozyme present in saliva and tear kills many
bacteria by destroying their cell walls.
❖ Cerumen traps dust particles, kills bacteria and repels insects.
❖ Certain bacteria living in vagina produce lactic acid which kills
the foreign bacteria.
❖ Rise in temperature due to infection is a natural defence
mechanism which help not only to accelerate physiological
process but also to destroy the pathogen.

C) Cellular barriers:
Certain types of leukocytes (WBCs) such as polymorphonuclear
leukocytes ( PMNL) – neutrophils, monocytes, can phagocytise, and
destroy microbes.
Macrophages in tissues can phagocytise and destroy microbes.
Natural killer cells (NK cells) can destroy microbes.
N K cells kill virus infected and some tumour cells. The killer cells
produce perforins which create pores in the plasma membrane of
target cells. These pores allow entry of water into the target cells
which then smell and burst. The cellular remains are taken by
phagocytes.
D) Cytokine barriers : They form a special line of defence. The cells
invaded by the virus produce a large group of anti – viral proteins like
 Lymphokines , interferons, tumour necrosis factors etc. These
proteins protect the non -infected cells from further viral infections
and play a major role in innate immune response.

2) Acquired immunity ( specific immunity or Adaptive immunity ) :

❖ It is the immunity acquired or developed by the organism when a
disease is caused by a pathogen or during vaccination. Thus it is a
pathogen specific type of immunity produced against specific
pathogen or disease. Eg. Immunity against polio, small pox, mumps
etc.
❖ It is characterized by memory. This means that when the body is
encounters a pathogen for the first time produces a response called
primary response which is of low intensity. Subsequent encounter
with the same pathogen elicits a highly intensified secondary
response .
❖ The primary and secondary immune responses are carried out with
the help of two special types of lymphocytes present in our blood, I.
e., B-lymphocytes and T- lymphocytes.
❖ B- Lymphocytes – They become immuno competent in bone
marrow. They involved in antibody mediated or humoral mediated
immunity. They divide differentiate as plasma cells and memory
cells. Antibodies produced by B-cells destroy pathogens by number
of ways.
❖ T-lymphocytes – They become immuno competent in thymus. They
involved in cell mediated specific immunity. They divide and
differentiate as killer, helper, suppressor and memory T-cells. T-cells
move towards pathogens and secrete perforins and destroy them

Differences between Innate and Acquired immunity –

Innate immunity-
❖ It is present from birth and is inherited from parents .
❖ It is non-specific.
 ❖ The various physical, physiological, cellular, cytokine bartiers are
the basis of innate immunity.
❖ The innate immunity remains throughout life.
❖ It is not present from the birth.

Acquired Immunity:
❖ The memory cells formed by B and T- cells are the basis of
acquired immunity.
❖ The acquired immunity can be short lived or life long.
❖ It is not present from the birth.
❖ It is pathogen specific.
Differentiate between T- lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes :
T- lymphocytes:
❖ Provides cell mediated immunity.
❖ Have longest life span.
❖ It lacks the surface antigen recognize outside the infected cell.
B-lymphocytes :
❖ Provides humoral immunity.
❖ Have shorter life span.
❖ It recognizes the surface antigen of bacteria and virus.
Antigen and Antibodies:
Antigens:
❖ An antigen is any protein or polysaccharide which can stimulate the body
cells to produce specific antibody. These are also called immunogens.
❖ These antigens are located on the outer membranes of microbes or cells.
❖ The membrane molecules that help in recognizing the normal cells of the
body by the immune system are called self antigens.
❖ These cells are not attacked by the defence system.
❖ The region of antigen that reacts with antibody to produce immune
response is called antigenic determinant or epitope.
❖ Proteins are large and strong antigens. Such single antigen may have
several antigenic determinants and can induce formation of several
different antibodies.
❖ The ability bof an antigen to stimulate antibody production is called
antigenicity or immunogenicity.
❖ The chemical reaction of the specific antibody and antigen is called antigen
reactivity.

Antibodies :
Antibodies are immunoglobulin(Igs) which are produced in response to
antigenic stimulation and each antibody is a protein molecule. Antibodies are
produced by B-lymphocytes.
T- lymphocytes do not produce antibodies themselves but helps B- cells to
produce them.
Structure of Antibody:
❖ An antibody molecule is made of four polypeptide chains arranged in ‘Y'
shape.
❖ There are two long chains composed of 400 amino acids and two short
chains composed of 200 amino acids.
❖ Long chains are called heavy chains and short chains are called light
chains based on their molecular weight. Hence an antibody is
represented has H2L2.
❖ All four chains are held together by disulphide bonds.
❖ The polypeptide chains have 2 regions namely variable region and
constant region.
❖ Variable region is the antigen binding site that differs in different
antibodies, where as constant region is remain constant for all types of
antibody molecules.
❖ Different classes of antibody produced in our body are IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE
and IgG.
Immune response :
The specific reaction induced in a host by an antigenic stimulus is known as the
immune response. The immune response is of two types:
1) Humoral Or Antibody mediated immunity (AMI)
2) Cell mediated immunity (CMI)
Humoral immunity/ AMI :
The B lymphocytes from the humoral or antibody mediated immunity. Each B
lymphocyte consist of specific receptors on its surface. This receptor is the
antibody produced by the B lymphocyte. When this receptor interacts with the
antigenic determinant of the antigen specific to it, the B-lymphocyte becomes
activated and divides to form clone of cells called plasma cells/ effector cells.
Plasma cells produce antibodies at the rate of about 2000 molecules per second.
But some of the activated B lymphocytes develop into long lived memory cells.
They do not produce antibodies but have long life span and serve to recognize the
same antigen during secondary infection. They differentiate themselves into
plasma cells which produce antibodies to destroy pathogens.
Cell mediated immunity / CMI :
The T- lymphocytes form cell mediated immunity. The T- lymphocytes are
produced in the bone marrow and migrate to the thymus. Here, they divide
rapidly and develop extreme diversity fir reacting against different specific
antigens.
Each T- lymphocyte consist of specific receptor on its surface. When this receptor
interacts with the antigenic determinant specific to it, the T lymphocyte becomes
activated and divides to form clone of T-cells such as: -
1) Helper T cells- They stimulate B cells to produce antibodies. They also
stimulate the killer T- cells to destroy the non- self cells. They produce some
regulatory proteins called Lymphokines which play a role in regulation of
immune response.
2) Cytotoxic- T cells- These cells secrete perforin which punctures the infected
host cell. This prevents the completion of life cycle of the pathogen. It is
also involved in killing cancer cells.
 3) Suppressor T cells – They supress the functions of cytotoxic and helper T
cells, When infection is controlled.
4) Memory T cells- They persist in the body and are programmed to show
secondary immune response during infection.
Primary and secondary Immune responses :
The immune response mounted aa a result of the first encounter of an animal
with an antigen is called primary immune response. It takes relatively longer time,
it is feeble and declines rapidly.
But a subsequent encounter of this animal with the same antigen results in a
heightened immune response called secondary immune response. It is due to the
memory cells that were produced during the primary response. T lymphocytes
response occurs more rapidly and lasts much more longer than primary immune
response.
Active and passive immunity:
Active immunity:
• The immunity develop by a host body when exposed to antigens in the
form of living or dead microbes or other proteins, is called Natural active
immunity.
• Active immunity is Slow and takes time to give its full effective response.
• The immunity obtained artificially through vaccination is called artificial
active immunity.
• Injecting the microbes during immunization or infectious organisms gaining
access into body during Natural infection induces active immunity.
Passive Immunity:
• Transfer of ready made antibodies directly to the host body to protect
against foreign agents, is called natural passive immunity.
• E.g. Transfer of antibodies through placenta and breast milk from mother
to child.
• Colostrum : The yellowish fluid secreted by mother during the initial days
of lactation is called colostrum. It has abundant Antibodies -IgA to protect
the infant.
 • So mothers milk is very essential for the new born infant.
• The foetus receives antibodies -IgG from their mother, through the
placenta during pregnancy. When an individual is artificially injected with
antibodies from animal or humans is called artificial passive immunity.
Vaccination and Immunization :
Vaccination:
• The process of attaining immunity by introducing a preparation of antigenic
proteins of pathogen or inactivated / weekend pathogen (vaccine) is called
vaccination. It is a method of preventing infection of microorganisms.
• The principle of immunization or vaccination is based on the property of
‘memory' of the immune system.
• The antibodies produced by the body against these antigens would
neutralize the pathogenic agents (bacteria, virus) during actual infection.
• The vaccines also generate memory – B and T- cells that recognize the
pathogen quickly on subsequent exposure and decreases the invaders with
a massive production of antibodies.
Immunization:
• Introduction of pre- formed antibodies or antitoxin directly to the body to
get quick immune response is called immunization or passive
immunization.
• Eg; In tetanus and snakebites, the injection given to the patients, contain
performed antibodies against the snake venom.
• Recombinant DNA technology has followed the production of antigenic
polypeptides of pathogen in bacteria or yeast.
• Vaccines produced using this approach allows large scale production and
hence greater availability for immunization, e. g., hepatitis B vaccine
produced from yeast.
Allergies:
• The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens
present in the environment is called Allergy or the Hypersensitivity shown
by immune system against harmless antigens is called allergy.
 • The substance to which an immune response is produced are called
allergens. Common example of allergens are mites in dust, animal dander,
moulds, insect stings etc.
• Allergy is due to the release of serotonin And histamine from mast cells.
• These chemicals dilate the blood vessels is causing the leakage of body
fluids which decreases the blood pressure and cause irritation.
• Immunoglobulins produced during allergy are IgE.
• Diagnosis : For determining the cause of allergy, the patient is exposed to
or injected with very small doses of possible allergens, and the reactions
are studied.
• Symptoms : a) sneezing b) Watery eyes, c) Running nose d) Difficulty in
breathing e) Irritation of throat and trachea.
• Control: The use of drugs like anti – histamine, adrenaline and steroids
quickly reduce the symptoms of allergy.
• The children’s in metro cities of India suffer from allergies and asthma de
to sensitivity to the environment. This could be because of the protected
environment provided early in life.
Auto – immunity:
• It is a type of auto immune disease caused due to genetic and other
unknown reasons, by which body is get damaged by the attack of self's
cells.
• Eg; Rheumatoid arthritis, insulin -dependent Diabetes. Etc.
• Most of the times the immune system recognizes body cells but some times
it causes auto immunity.
Lymphoid organs:
There are two types of lymphoid organs namely a) Primary Lymphoid organs and
b) Secondary Lymphoid organs.
Primary lymphoid organs: Bone marrow band thymus v, where production and
maturation of lymphocytes take place.
1) Bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ where all blood cell including
lymphocytes bare produced.
2) Thymus is a bilobed organ located near the heart, beneath the breastbone.
 3) B-lymphocytes are produced and matured in bone marrow.
4) T-lymphocytes are produced in bone marrow but matured in thymus
Secondary lymphoid organs: Spleen, Tonsil, Lymph node, Payer’s patches of small
intestine and Appendix where proliferation and differentiation of lymphocyte
take place.
1) The spleen : is the largest lymphoid organ. It is present in the upper part of
the abdominal cavity, behind the stomach and close to the diaphragm. It
plays an important role in the production and destruction of RBC and acts
as a filter, filtering the foreign bodies(antigens) from the blood stream b.
These antigens stimulate the humoral and cell mediated immune response
of the spleen.
2) Lymph node: small solid structure located at different points along the
lymphatic system. Traps the micro organisms or other foreign antigens.
Antigen trapped into the lymph node responsible for activation and
differentiation of lymphocytes and cause immune response.
3) Mucosal associated lymphoid tissues (MALT) : Located within the lining of
major tract (respiratory, digestive and urinogenital tracts)
4) Tonsils: they are the collection of lymphoid tissues present around the
pharynx region. They are mainly composed of B- lymphocyte in man. They
are similar to thymus they are similar in their structure and like thymus
they are large in childhood and reduce with age. Their function is to defend
the body from pathogens that enter through the inhaled air by forming the
appropriate antibodies.
5) Payers patches of small intestine : are aggregations of lymphoid tissues
present in the lamina propria of the ileum of the alimentary canal.
6) Appendix: is a finger like extension present at the junction of the ileum of
small intestine and caecum of the large intestine.

AIDS:
The word AIDS stands for Acquired immuno deficiency syndrome. Which means
deficiency of immune system, acquired during the life time of an individual.
Syndrome means a group of symptoms AIDS is a disorder of cell mediated
immune system of the body. Here is reduction in the number of helper T cells
which stimulate antibody production by B cells. This results in the loss of natural
defence against viral infection.
It was first reported in 1981 . In the last 25 years it has spread all over the world
killing more than 25 million persons.
Causative agent: It is caused by Virus HIV ( human immuno deficiency virus)
HIV is a retrovirus. It is spherical and enveloped. It enclose genome. It’s genome
consists of a single standard RNA filament. HIV is considered be diploid. It contain
two protein coats.

Mode of action of HIV( mode of replication) : when the virus enters the body it
specifically attacks helper T cells ( macrophages) of immune system. The viral RNA
is converted into DNA copy by the viral enzyme reverse transcriptase.
This viral DNA get incorporated into the human chromosome and replicates with
the human DNA. It is transcribed to produce viral RNA copies. The RNA copies are
packed and released as virus particles. The infected cells is then subjected to lysis
and the released virus particles infect new T- helper cells.

Transmission: it occurs by
1) Sexual contact with infected person
2) By transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products.
3) By sharing infected needles as in the case of intravenous drug abusers.
4) From infected mother to her child through placenta.
Symptoms: Malignant tumours in connective tissue viral, bacterial protozoan and
fungal infections of any system of the body. There is destruction of WBC's,
damage to brain, fever, loss of appetite and weight over a short period chronic
diarrhoea, cough, Night sweat, enlargement of lymph glands lethargy pharyngitis,
nausea, headache etc.
Diagnosis: AIDS patients have circulating antibodies, which can be detected. A
Widal test fir AIDS is ELISA (enzyme linked immuno sorbent assay) test and
western blotting test.
Treatment: It has no cure, however use if certain drugs can prolong the life of
AIDS patient. Zidovidine Or AZT (Azidodideoxy thymidine) was the first drug used
fir the treatment of AIDS.
Dianosine is another drug used to treat AIDS.
Prevention: As AIDS has no cure, prevention is the best option. More over HIV
infection spreads due to conscious behaviour patterns and is not something that
happens inadvertently, like pneumonia or typhoid. Of course infection in blood
transfusion patients, new borns from mother – etc. may take place due to poor
monitoring. Many people are ignorant about AIDS and it has been said that “
don’t due of ignorance “ . In our country National AIDS control organizations
(NACO) and other NGOS are doing good job to educate people about AIDS. Every
year, December 1 , is called as the world AIDS Day, it is one of the methods to
educate people about AIDS.
Cancer:
Cancer is a dreadful disease of human beings and is a major cause of death all
over the world. More than a million Indians suffer from cancer and a large
number of them die annually.
Cancer is an abnormal and uncontrolled division of cells, that invade and destroy
the surrounding tissues.
Cancer cells are different from normal cells in some aspects. Normal cells have a
limited life span. They are usually replaced by new cells through cell division and
cell differentiation. Their formation is regulated in such a manner that the
number of a given cell type remains nearly contact.
Normal cells show a property called contact inhibition. When cells multiply, they
become crowded and start touching each other. This surface contact results in
inhibition of cell division and uncontrolled growth. Cancer cells seem to have lost
this property. As a result of this cancerous cells just continue to divide giving rise
to masses of cells called tumours.
Types of tumours:
There are two types of tumours
1) Benign tumour
2) Malignant tumour
1) Benign tumours(non- malignant tumours) : they remain confined to their
original location and do not spread to other parts of the body. Benign
tumours are not cancerous and cause little damage to the body.
2) Malignant tumours ( Cancerous tumours) : They are masses of
proliferating cells called neoplastic or tumour cells, which grows very
rapidly, invading and damaging the surrounding normal tissues. The rapid
grow of tumour starves the normal cells by competing for vital nutrients. In
the last stage, bits of tumour tissue break off and are carried by the
circulating blood or lymph to other parts of the body, where they invade
new tissues and starts new tumours called secondary tumours. This
property is called metastasis. It is the most feared property of malignant
tumours.
Causes of Cancer:
The agents that can cause cancer ate known as carcinogens.
They include
1) Physical carcinogens: Constant irritation of a tissue may produce cancer.
2) Radiations: Ionising radiations like X- ray and gamma rays and non- ionising
radiations like UV rays cause DNA damage leading neoplastic
transformation.
3) Chemical Carcinogens: A member of chemicals are known to induce cancer.
These include nicotine, caffeine, products of combustion of coal and oil,
pesticides, nickel, certain dyes and artificial sweeteners.
4) Biological carcinogens: some viruses are beloved to cause cancers. Cancer
causing viruses are called oncogenic viruses. The gene of oncogenic viruses
are called as viral oncogenes. Further more, several genes called cellular
oncogenes Or proto oncogenes are identified in normal cells which when
activated under certain conditions, could lead to oncogenic transformation
of the cells.
Cancer detection and diagnosis:
Early detection of cancer if essential as it allows the disease to be treated
successfully in many causes. Detection of cancer is based on the biopsy and
histopathological studies of the tissue blood and bone marrow tests or
increased cell count on leukaemia’s.
1) In biopsy, a piece of the suspected tissue cut into this sections is stained
band examined under microscope by a pathologist.
2) Techniques like radiography ( use of x- rays) , CT( computed tomography)
and MRI ( magnetic resonance imaging) are very useful to detect cancers of
internal organs. In MRI strong magnetic field and non- ionising radiations
are used to detect pathological and physiological charges accurately in the
living tissues.
3) Mammography is a radiographic examination of breasts fir possible cancer.
4) Antibodies against cancer – specific antigen are also used for detection of
certain cancers.
 5) Technique of molecular biology can be applied to detect genes in
individuals with inherited susceptibility to certain cancers. Identification of
such genes, which predispose an individual to certain cancers, may be very
helpful in prevention of cancers. Such individuals may be advised to avoid
exposure to particular carcinogens to which they are susceptible. (Eg:-
Tobacco smoke in case of long cancer).
Treatment of cancer:-
The common approaches for the treatment of cancer ate surgery, radiation
therapy, chemotherapy and immunotherapy.
1) Surgery- It involves the removal of entire cancerous cells.
2) Radiation therapy: In radiation therapy tumour cells are irradiated lethally
with x- rays, taking proper care of the normal tissues surrounding the
tumour mass.
3) Chemotherapy:- It involves administration of anticancerous drugs. These
drugs prevent cell division by inhibiting DNA synthesis or are more toxic to
cancer cells than to normal cells. Some of the chemotherapeutic drugs are
specific for particular tumours. Most of the anticancerous drugs have side
effects like hair loss , anaemia etc., most cancers are treated by
combination of surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy.
4) Immunotherapy :- Tumour cells avoid detection and destruction by the
immune system. Therefore, the patients are given substances called
“biological response modifiers” such as alpha- interferons which activate
their immune system and helps in destroying the tumour.

Drugs and alcohol Abuse:-

Drugs:-
• Drug is a chemical compound that alters the biochemical or
physiological processes of tissues or organisms.
• When the drugs are taken in amounts or with methods neither
approved nor supervised by medical professionals it is called drug
abuse.
• Drugs commonly abused are opioids, cannabinoids and coca alkaloids.
Opioids:-
• These are the drugs, which bind to specific opioid receptors present in our
central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract.
• Heroin, commonly called smack is chemically diacetylmorphine which is a
white, odourless, bitter crystalline compounds.
• This is obtained by acetylation of morphine, which is extracted from the
latex of poppy plant papaver somniferum.
• Generally taken by snorting and injection, heroin is a depressant and slows
down body functions.
Cannabinoids:-
• These are a group of chemicals, which interact with cannabinoid receptors
present principally in the brain.
• Natural cannabinoids are obtained from the inflorescence of the plant
Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica and Canna ruredalis.
• The flower tops, leaves and the resin of cannabis plant are used in various
combinations to produce marijuana, hashish, charas and ganja.
• Generally taken by inhalation and oral ingestion, these are known for their
effects on cardiovascular system of the body.
Coca alkaloids / stimulants:
• Drugs that tend to stimulate and speed up body reactions causing alertness
and hyper-activeness hence , are also called pep pills.
• Coca alkaloids or cocaine is obtained from coca plant Erythroxylum coca,
native to South America.
• It interferes with the transport of the neuro- transmitter dopamine.
• Cocaine, commonly called coke or crack or white snow. It is usually snorted
or injected into vein. It has a potent stimulating action on central nervous
system producing a sense of euphoria and increased energy.
• Excessive dosage of cocaine causes hallucinations.
• Other plants with hallucinogenic properties are – atropa belladona, Datura.
Medical use of drugs :
• Barbiturates, amphetamines, Benzodiazepines and other similar drugs, that
are normally used as medicines to help patients cope with mental illness,
depression and insomnia, are often abused.
• Morphine is a very effective sedative and painkiller used for surgery
patient. Plant product with hallucinogenic property have used as folk-
medicine, religious ceremonies and rituals.
Tobacco: It is smoked, chewed or used as a snuff.
• Tobacco contains nicotine ban alkaloid.
• Nicotine stimulates Adrenal glands to raise blood pressure and increased
heart rates.
• Tobacco contains nicotine an alkaloid.
• Smoking tobacco is associated with cancer of lungs, urinary bladder, and
throat, bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric ulcer etc.
• Smoking increased CO content of blood reduce oxygen carrying capacity of
haemoglobin.
• Tobacco chewing is associated with cancer of oral cavity.
Adolescence and drug / alcohol Abuse:
The period between 12-18 yrs. of age is called Adolescent period. Adolescent is a
bridge linking childhood and adulthood. Curiosity, need for adventure and
excitement, and experimentation, are the common cause of drug/ alcohol abuse.
Addiction: - addiction is a psychological attachment to certain effects such as
euphoria and a temporary feeling of well being associated with drugs and alcohol.
Dependence:- It is the tendency of the body to manifest a characteristic and
unpleasant withdrawal syndrome if regular dose of drug/ alcohol is abruptly
discontinued.
Effects of Drug/ Alcohol Abuse:-
• Immediate effects are reckless behaviour, vandalism and violence.
• Excessive doses of drugs may lead to coma and death due to respiratory
failures , heart failure or cerebral haemorrhage.
 • Intravenous drug user more prone to acquire infections like AIDS and
hepatitis through sexual contact and infected blood.
• The chronic use of drugs and alcohol during pregnancy affect the
development of foetus.
Prevention and control measures of Drug/ alcohol abuse: -
• Avoiding undue peer pressure:- Every child has its own choice and
personality and therefore should not be pressurized to perform beyond its
limits in any activity.
• Education and counselling:- The child should be educated and counselled to
face problems and stresses and to accept disappointments and failures. It
should be encouraged to take up healthy hobbies like Music, Reading,
sports etc.
• Seeking help from parents and peers:- The child should seek help from
parents and close friends to solve problems.
• Looking for danger signs:- Parents, teachers and friends should be alert to
identify danger signs associated with drug/ alcohol abuse so that
appropriate remedial measures or treatment can be initiated.
• Seeking professional and medical help:- affected individuals should seek the
help if qualified psychologist and psychiatrists and also de-addiction and
rehabilitation programmes to come out of the problem.