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COURSE DETAILS:

Week 1-2: Introduction to computer History and generations of computers

Week 3-4: the characteristics of a computer, classes of computer, types of computer and
functions of personal computers

Week 5-6: Introduction to the QBASIC Programming Language, the syntax data types and
concept of variables

Week 7-8: Components of a Personal Computer and categories of an operating system

Week 9-10 Principles of Networking: computer network, topology, Internet and Benefits of the
Internet

Week 11: Program development: algorithms and methods of representing algorithms concept
of algorithms: flowcharts and pseudo code

Missing:

Computer Application: Introduction to Micro Soft Office: M s office, Spreadsheet,

presentation (power Point) Graphics and other applications

Internet: Concept, Usage, searching for information. Virus: Attacks, diagnosis and preventions

Week 12 Revision

INTRODUCTION

The computer is fast becoming the universal machine of the twenty-first century. Early
computers were large in size and too expensive to be owned by individuals. Thus they were
confined to the laboratories and few research institutes. They could only be programmed by
computer engineers. The basic applications were confined to undertaking complex calculations
in science and engineering. Today, the computer is no longer confined to the laboratory.
Computers, and indeed, computing have become embedded in almost every item we use.
Computing is fast becoming ubiquitous. Its application in engineering, communication, space
science, aviation, financial institutions, social sciences, humanities, the military,
transportation, manufacturing, the extractive industries to mention but a few.

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Definitions

Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and
processes these data under the control of set of instructions (called program) and gives the
result (output) and saves output for the future use. It can process both numerical and non-
numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations.

A computer has four functions:

a. accepts data Input

b. processes data Processing

c. produces output Output

d. stores results Storage

A diagram to define computer

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A Computer System

Brief History of a Computer

A complete history of computing would include a multitude of diverse devices such as the
ancient Chinese abacus, the Jacquard loom (1805) and Charles Babbage’s “analytical engine”
(1834). It would also include a discussion of mechanical, analog and digital computing
architectures. As late as the 1960s, mechanical devices, such as the Merchant calculator, still
found widespread application in science and engineering. During the early days of electronic
computing devices, there was much discussion about the relative merits of analog vs. digital
computers. In fact, as late as the 1960s, analog computers were routinely used to solve systems
of finite difference equations arising in oil reservoir modeling. In the end, digital computing
devices proved to have the power, economics and scalability necessary to deal with large scale
computations. Digital computers now dominate the computing world in all areas ranging from
the hand calculator to the supercomputer and are pervasive throughout society. Therefore, this
brief sketch of the development of scientific computing is limited to the area of digital,
electronic computers.

The evolution of digital computing is often divided into generations. Each generation is
characterized by dramatic improvements over the previous generation in the

technology used to build computers, the internal organization of computer systems, and
programming languages. Although not usually associated with computer generations, there has
been a steady improvement in algorithms, including algorithms used in computational science.
The following history has been organized using these widely recognized generations as
mileposts.

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The First Generation (1940 – 1956)

• The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory,
and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms.

• They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity,
generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions

• First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming

language understood by computers, to perform operations and they could only solve one
problem at a time.

• Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on
printouts

Vacuum tube

The Second Generation (1956 – 1963)

• Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers.

• One transistor replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum tubes

• Allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more
reliable

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• Still generated a great deal of heat that can damage the computer.

• Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to

symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions
in words

• Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for
output.

• These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which
moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology

Transistor

The Third Generation (1964 – 1971)

• The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers.

• Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors,

which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

• Much smaller and cheaper compare to the second generation computers.

• It could carry out instructions in billionths of a second.

• Users interact with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and
interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different
applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.

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• Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were
smaller and cheaper than their predecessors

Integrated Circuit

The Fourth Generation (1971 – today)

• The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of

integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip.

• As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet.

• Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and
handheld devices.

Microprocessor

The Fifth Generation (Today to future) •

Based on Artificial Intelligence (AI).

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• Still in development.

• The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial

intelligence a reality

• The goal is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of
learning and self-organization.

Computer Generations and Their Characteristics

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER

• Speed: The computer can manipulate large data at incredible speed and response time
can be very fast.

• Accuracy: Its accuracy is very high and its consistency can be relied upon. Errors in
computing are mostly due to human rather than technological weakness. There is in-
built error detecting schemes in the computer.

• Storage: It has both internal and external storage facilities for holding data and
instructions. This capacity varies from one machine to the other. Memories are built up
in K (Kilo) modules where K=1024 memory locations.

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• Automatic: Once a program is in the computer’s memory, it can run automatically
each time it is opened. The individual has little or no instruction to give again.

• Reliability: Being a machine, a computer does not suffer human traits of tiredness and
lack of concentration. It will perform the last job with the same speed and accuracy as
the first job every time even if ten million jobs are involved.

Flexibility: It can perform any type of task once it can be reduced to logical steps. Modern
computers can be used to perform a variety of functions like on-line processing, multi-
programming, real time processing e.t.c.

CLASSES OF COMPUTER

• Analog Computers: This class of computer are special purpose machines that surfaced
in the late forties (1948). They are used for solving scientific and mathematical
equations or problems. An example is the thermal analyzer. Data and figures are
represented by physical quantities such as angular positions and voltage.

• Digital Computers: They are machines made up of combinations of chips, flip-flops,

buttons and other electronic devices to make them function at a very fast speed. A digital
computer has its numbers, data letters or other symbols represented in digital format.
They are mostly special purpose machines unless minor specifications are included in
the design.

• A computer that combines the features of a digital and analog computer is called a
hybrid computer.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS

Super Computers

• A super computer is the most powerful computer available at any given time. These
machines are built to process huge amounts of information and do so very quickly.

• Supercomputers are built specifically for researchers or scientists working on projects

that demand very huge amounts of data variables; an example is in nuclear research,
where scientists want to know exactly what will happen during every millisecond of a

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nuclear chain reaction. (To demonstrate the capability of super computers, for an air
pollution control project that involves more than 500,000 variables, it will take a mini
computer about 45 hours to complete the simulation process while it will take a super
computer 30 minutes only).

• They are big in size, generate a lot of heat and are very expensive. (Super computers are
made by CRAY Company).

Mainframe Computers

• The largest types of computers in common use are the mainframe computers. They are
designed to handle tremendous amounts of input, output and storage.

• They are used mainly by large organization like the PHCN, NITEL, and CBN.

• Other users access mainframe computers through terminals. Terminals consist of a type
of keyboard and a video display i.e. monitors. The mainframe is usually in the computer
room (Mainframe computers are made by IBM, Boroughs & Univac).

Mini Computers

• These are physically small compared to mainframes and are generally used for special
purposes or small-scale general purposes.

The best way to explain the capabilities of mini computers is to say they lie between
mainframes and personal computers. Like mainframes, they can handle a great deal
more input and output than personal computers.

• Although some minicomputers are designed for a single user, many can handle dozens
or even hundreds of terminals.

• Advances in circuitry means modern mini computers can out-perform older mainframes
of the 60s. (Examples are Digital Equipment Company’s PDP II and Vax rang)

Workstations

• Between mini computers and micro computers – in terms of processing power is a class
of computers known as workstations.

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• A workstation looks like a personal computer and is typically used by one person,
although it is still more powerful than the average personal computer.

• The differences in the capabilities of these types of machines are growing smaller. They
significantly differ from micro computers in two ways: the central processing unit
(CPU) of workstations are designed differently to enable faster processing of
instructions and most of the micro computers can run any of the four major operating
systems.

• Workstations [(Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)] use UNIX operating system
or a variation of it. (A note of caution: Many people use the term workstation to refer to
any computer or terminal that is connected to another computer. Although this usage
was once a common meaning of the term, it has become out dated) (The biggest
manufacturers of workstations are Sun Microsystems).

Micro Computers/Personal Computers

• The term microcomputers and personal computers are used interchangeably to mean the
small free- standing computers that are commonly found in offices, homes and
classrooms.

• Many micro computers are built specially to be used in watches, clocks, and cameras.
Today, PCs are seriously challenging mainframes and mini computers in many areas. In
fact today PCs are more powerful than mainframes of just a few years ago, and
competition is producing smaller, faster models every year.

TYPES OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

• THE DESKTOP: This is the first type of PCs and the most common. Most desktops are
small enough to fit on a desk, but are a little too big to carry around.

• THE LAPTOP: They weigh about 10pounds (4.5kg). They are battery – operated
computers with built–in screens. They are designed to be carried and used in locations
without electricity. Laptops typically have an almost full –sized keyboard.

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• THE NOTEBOOK: They are similar to laptops and PCs, but smaller. They weigh about
6 to7 pounds (2.7 – 3.2kg). As the name implies, they are approximately the size of a
notebook and can easily fit inside a brief case.

THE PALMTOP: They are also known as personal digital assistance (PDAs) and are the
smallest of portable computers. Palmtops are much less powerful than notebooks or
desktops models and feature built-in applications such as word processing. They are
mostly used to display important telephone numbers and addresses.

FUNCTIONS OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS

Personal computers can do a lot of things. The most common tasks computers perform include:

• Writing documents such as memos, letters, reports and briefs

• Budgeting and performing accounting tasks

• Analyzing numeric information

• Searching through lists or reports for specific information

• Scheduling and planning projects.

• Creating illustrations

• Communicating by using electronic mail

• Advertising products and services.

COMPONENTS OF A PERSONAL COMPUTER

A personal computer is not a single unit. A typical computer consists of several basic parts or
components that work together. To perform any computer task you need two major components:
the hardware and the software.

[1] The hardware is the physical components of a computer system. Generally you can
think of the hardware as any part of the computer that you can see or touch. Although
the hardware of a computer is capable of performing marvelous tasks, it cannot
accomplish any of them without the vital instructions that the software provides.

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[2] The software is a set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do. You can’t see or
touch the software, although you can see packages that contain the software. It is
typically distributed on CD-ROM disc and is installed on the computer hard drive.

HARDWARE COMPOINENTS

The major hardware components of the personal computer consist of the following:

[1] Input Devices: Input devices are the computer hardware that accepts data and instructions
from a user. Input devices have been built in many forms to help in communicating with the
computer. The most common input devices are the keyboard and the mouse.

i. The Keyboard: The keyboard of the personal computer comes in a number of

styles. The various models may differ in size and shape, but except for a few
special purpose keys, MDS keyboards are laid out almost identifiably. The most
common keyboard used today was established by IBM. The computer keyboard
is more than just a typewriter. It contains all of the keys required for typing
letters, numbers, plus the keys for entering commands and moving around on the
screen. There are 101 keys arranged in groups: Alphanumeric, Numeric,
Function and Arrow/Cursor movement keys, and Computer keys.

ii. A mouse is a pointing device that enables you to quickly move around on the
screen, and to select commands from menus rather than type the commands. A

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 mouse is useful because it enables the user to point at items on the screen and
clicks a button to select the item. It is convenient for entering certain data. iii. Track
Balls: A trackball is an input device that works like an upside-down mouse. You rest
your hand on the exposed ball and the fingers on the button. To move the cursor around
the screen, you roll the ball with your thumb. Trackballs are much popular with
notebook computers. They require less desk space than the mouse.

iv. The Joystick: This is a pointing device commonly used for games. It is not
used for business applications.

v. The Pen: It is an input device that allows a user to write on or point at a special
pad on the screen of a pen-based computer, such as a personal digital assistant
(PDAS).

vi. The Touch Screen: A computer screen that accepts input directly into the
monitor; users touch electronic buttons displayed on the screen. It is appropriate
in environment where dirt or weather would render keyboards and pointing
devices useless.

vii. The Scanner: This is an input device used to copy images into a computer
memory without manual keying. It works by converting any image into
electronic form by shinning light on the image and sensing the intensity of
reflection at every point. There are several kinds of scanners. These includes:
hand held, flatbed, and sheet-feds.

viii. The Bar-Code Reader: This is one of the most commonly used input devices
after the keyboard and mouse. It is commonly found in supermarkets and
department stores. This device converts a pattern of printed bars on products
into a product number by emitting a beam of light frequently from a laser that
reflects off the bar code image. A light sensitive detector identifies the bar-code
image by special bars at both ends of the image. Once it has identified the
barcode, it converts the individual bar patterns into numeric digits.

Input Devices

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[2] Processing Devices: Basically two components handle processing in a computer: the
central processing unit (CPU) and the memory.

a. The Central Processing Unit (CPU): The central processing unit (CPU) is a tiny
electronic chip known as the micro processor located in the system unit. It is
installed on the main circuit board of the computer, the motherboard. The CPU as
the name implies is where information is processed within the computer. In this
regard, you might think of the CPU (processor) as the brain of the computer. The
CPU is otherwise known as microprocessor. Every CPU has at least two basic parts.
The control unit and the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). The control unit coordinates
all the computer activities and contains the CPUs instruction to carry out commands.
The ALU is responsible for carrying out arithmetic and logic functions. In other

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 words, when the control unit encounters an instruction that involves arithmetic and
logic it refers it to the ALU.

b. Memory: What happens to all the information we put into the computer: before,
while and after information is processed? It is held in the computer memory or

Random Access Memory (RAM). The memory to which we are referring here is not

the kind of long-term storage that allows you to save work on a floppy disk and
months later to use it, but rather a short term holding area that is built into the
computer hardware. While the CPU is fast and efficient, it cannot remember
anything by itself. It often refers to the memory in the computer for software
instruction and to remember what it is working on. The term RAM and memory are
often interchangeable. RAM refers to the way the CPU searches through memory for
the information it needs. For the workings of a memory, information is stored in
memory chips. The CPU can get information faster from RAM than it can from a
disk. A computer then reads information or instruction from disks and stores the
information in the RAM where it can get the information quickly. The CPU
processes the information and then returns to the RAM.

Central Processing Unit (CPU Memory

[3] Storage Devices: Among the most important part of a computer system are the devices
that allow you to save data or information. The physical components or materials on which
data are stored are called storage media. A storage device is a piece of hardware that
permanently stores information. Unlike electronic memory, a storage device retains

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 information when electric power is turned off. There are several storage devices and primary
among them are:

a. The Floppy Disk: The floppy disk is a circular flat piece of plastic made of a
flexible (or floppy) magnetic material on which data are recorded. Floppy disk drives
store data on both sides of the disks. Earlier computers stored data on only a single
side of the floppy disk.

b. The Hard Disk: The hard disk is generally not visible because hard disks are
usually enclosed within the system unit. The hard disk is a stack of metal platters
that spin on one spindle like a stack of rigid floppy disks. Unlike floppy disks where
the disk and drive are separate, the hard-disk drive, or hard drive is the whole unit.
Generally you cannot remove the hard disk from its drive; however some
manufacturers make removable hard disks that plug into a separate drive unit.

c. The CD-ROM: CD-ROM disks are hard, plastic, silver – a colored disk. CD-ROM is
an acronym for Compact Disc Read – Only Memory. This implies that the disk can
only be read. You cannot change or overwrite the contents of a CD-ROM disk.

d. Tape Drives: A tape drive is a device that reads and writes data to the surface of a
magnetic tape, generally used for backing up or restoring the data of an entire hard
disk.

e. The Zip Drive: Zip drives are an alternative to tape backup units or tape drives. A
zip drive can be internal or external. Zip drives have removable cartridges or disk. A
zip drive holds about 100MB to 250 MB of Data.

Storage Devices

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[4] Output Devices: Output devices return processed data, that is, information back to the
user. In other words, output devices allow the computer ‘talk’ to us. The most common
output devices are the monitor and the printer. Others include modems and speakers.

a. The Monitor: The monitor is an output device that enables the computer to display
to the user what is going on. It has a screen like that of a television. It is commonly
referred to as the screen or display. It is the main source for output of information
from the computer. As data is entered through an input device, the monitor changes
to show the effects of the command. Messages displayed on the screen allow the user
to know if the command is correct.

b. The Printer: The printer is an output device that produces on hard copy or a print
out on a paper i.e. it takes data from its electronic form and prints it out on paper.
There are three principal types of printers; Laser, Inkjet and Dot – Matrix.

c. The Sound Card: Sound Cards, otherwise known as sound boards, is a hard ware
board. It is a device that produces audio sounds and usually provides ports in the

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 back of a computer for external speakers. It is installed in one of the expansion slot
inside the system unit’s motherboard.

d. The Modem: The modem is a device that allows a computer to communicate with
another computer through a telephone line. Both computers need compatible
modem. With a modem, a computer and required software, you can connect with
other computers all over the world.

Output Devices

SOFTWARE COMPOINENTS

Software is a set of instructions that operate a computer, manipulate the data and execute
particular functions or tasks. In other words, it is a programs, routines, and symbolic languages
that control the function of the hardware.

For software (the instructions) to perform various functions, it must be programmed. That is, the
instructions need to be written in a programming language that the computer can understand.
Without a program, a computer is useless.

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Computer program is a sequence of instructions that can be executed by a computer to carry out
a process.

There are two kinds of software, systems software and applications software.

[1] Applications Software: Applications software includes programs that user access to
carry out work. They include applications for the following functions.

 Word processing is the most common applications software. The great advantage
of word processing over using a typewriter is that you can make changes without
retyping the entire document. Word processors make it easy to manipulate and
format documents. Example of word processing software is Microsoft Office
Word, Microsoft Works Word, Open Office Word, etc.

 Spreadsheets are computer programs that let people electronically create and
manipulate spreadsheets (tables of values arranged in rows and columns with
predefined relationships to each other). Spreadsheets are used for mathematical
calculations such as accounts, budgets, statistics and so on. Example; Microsoft
Excel, Lotus 1, 2, 3, and SPSS.

 Database management applications are computer programs that let people create
and manipulate data in a database. A database is a collection of related
information that can be manipulated and used to sort information, conduct
statistical analyses or generate reports. Example is Microsoft Access, Microsoft
SQL, MySQL and Oracle database.

 Presentation packages and graphics are computer programs that enable users to
create highly stylized images for slide presentations and reports. They can also
be used to produce various types of charts and graphs. Many software
applications include graphics components including: paint programs, desktop
publishing applications and so on. Example is Microsoft PowerPoint.

 Communications applications typically include software to enable people to send

faxes and emails and dial into other computers.

[2] Systems Software: includes the operating system and all the utilities that enable the
computer to function. The most important program that runs on a computer is the
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 operating system. Every general-purpose computer must have an operating system in
order to run other programs. This includes controlling functions such as the coordination
of the hardware and applications software, allocating storage facilities, controlling the
input and output devices and managing time sharing for linked or networked computers.

FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

• Booting of Computer: This is the first process which takes place the moment the
computer's electrical switch is put on. During this process all the peripherals connected
to the computer are checked and validated; at the end of the validation process, the OS
signals the user to begin working on the computer.

• Providing User Interface: The OS provides an interface for the user, either as a
command line interface or as a graphical user interface. This enables the user to
communicate with the computer.

• Managing the Hardware: OS controls and manages hardware resources. For example,
OS manages the selection and operation of devices used for input, output and storage. In
other words the OS serves as the intermediary between programs and hardware.

• Managing the File System: The operating system groups’ data together into -logical
compartments for storage on disk. These groups of data are called files. The computer
stores information in files. Files may contain program instructions or data created or
used by a program. The OS maintains the list of files on a disk.

• Supporting Programs: Another major function of an OS is to provide services to other

programs. Often these services are similar to those that the OS provides directly to users.
For example when you want your word- processing program to retrieve a document, the
word processor will list the files in the directory that you specify. • Some of the other
services that an OS provides to programs are:

 saving files to disk reading them from disk into memory

 checking available disk or memory space

 allocating memory to hold data for a program

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CATEGORIES OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

1. Multitasking the Operating System/Multi Programming: This is an OS that is able to

run more than one program task per operation time. There are two types of multitasking
operating systems cooperative and preemptive.

• Cooperative Multitasking: This requires cooperation between the OS and

application programs. In this case the programs are written in such a way that
they periodically check with the OS to see whether any other program needs the
CPU. If a program needs the CPU, they relinquish control of the CPU to the next
program. Cooperative multitasking is common with Macintosh OS and DOS
computers running Microsoft Windows.

• Preemptive Multitasking: Under this scheme, the OS maintain a list of

processes (programs) that are running. Each process on the list is assigned a
priority by the OS when it is started. At any time, the OS can intervene and
modify the priority list. The OS also retains control of the amount of time that it
spends with any process before going to the next process. UNIX, OS/2 and
Windows NT employ preemptive multitasking.

2. Multi-user Operating Systems: A multi-user OS allows more than a single user access
to a computer at the same time. Of course, to accomplish this, a multi-user OS must also
be capable of multitasking. Only UNIX OS and Windows NT are capable of supporting
multiple users. UNIX provides three ways to let people use the same PC at the same
time.

• The first way to connect to a PC running UNIX is from another computer with a
modem. The remote user can log in and run programs, list files, send emails
read the news and otherwise do everything they could do if they were physically
in front of the UNIX computer.

• The second way to connect to a UNIX computer is by attaching

terminals to the PC. Terminals are inexpensive devices that consist
of a keyboard, and a monitor.

• The third way to tap into a UNIX computer multi-user capabilities is with a
network.

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 3. Multiprocessing Operating Systems: A special type of OS is required to use a
computer equipped with more than one CPU. In other words, multiprocessing requires
an OS capable of using and managing a series of CPUs. There are two types:

• With asymmetrical multiprocessing one main CPU retains the overall control of
the computer as well as that of the other microprocessor.

• On the other hand in symmetrical multiprocessing there is no single controlling

CPU. This arrangement provides a linear increase in system capacity for each
processor added to the system.

• Some extensions of UNIX supports asymmetric multiprocessing while Windows

NT supports symmetric multiprocessing.

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

1. DOS (Disk Operating System): MS-DOS used to be the most common and most
popular of all the PC operating systems. The reason for its popularity then is because of the
overwhelming volume of available software and large installation of Intel-based PCs. DOS
runs on any of the Intel microprocessor. DOS functions through the command–line interface
i.e. DOS functions by commands.

2. Microsoft Windows: Microsoft Windows is a version of DOS. It was released in 1987.

Microsoft Windows can run standard DOS programs either in a window within the Graphic
Use Interface (GUI) or on a full-screen. To take full advantage of the Microsoft environment
you need programs written for Microsoft Windows.

3. Operating Systems 2 (OS/2): 1BM and Microsoft teamed up to develop the Operating
System 2(OS/2) to take full advantage of the multitasking capabilities of the newly
introduced Intel 80286 microprocessor. OS/2 like DOS has a character–based command-line
mode, but unlike DOS, the command interpreter is a separate program from the OS kernel
and is only involved when you click on the OS/2. OS/2 runs only on Intel 80286 and later
Intel processors.

4. The Macintosh OS: The Macintosh OS is a purely graphic machine. In fact there is no
equipment of a command-line interface available for it. Its tight integration of OS, GUI and
desktop make it desirable for people who do not want to deal with a command-line
interface. The Macintosh OS only runs on Macintosh machine. The Macintosh OS has an
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 additional network protocol built into it and is ideal for desktop publishing. Installing and
configuring a Macintosh with new hardware device is simple.

5. UNIX: UNIX is the first OS that runs on many different types of computers. It runs on
Cray supercomputers, PCs, and everything in between including mainframes and
minicomputers. UNIX is older than all the other PC operating systems and in many ways
served as a model for them. UNIX is based on a simple idea-small is better. Every command
and program that makes up the OS is designed to do a simple very specific task and do it
well. UNIX is an extremely robust and capable OS that utilizes command –line and there are
so many commands.

6. Microsoft Windows NT: Microsoft Windows NT is a new OS designed from scratch

for the most modern and capable machines available. Microsoft Windows NT offers built-in
features that no other PC OS has – with the possible exception of UNIX. In addition to the
traditional UNIX features of strict system security, built-in networking, built-in
communications and electronic mail services development and system administration tools,
and a GUI. Microsoft Windows NT can run Microsoft Windows applications and many

UNIX applications, directly. Like OS/2 it is a 32-bit OS that can use 386, 486 and Pentium

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 processors Microsoft Windows NT is multitasking and purely graphical OS with network
software to make a network client or server. It is single- user and allows access to command
line interface of the DOS unlike the Macintosh.

PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

We said earlier that software is a program that tells the computer what to do and how to do it.
This implies that without the software computer will practically do nothing and you will not be
able to use it at all. This software cannot be seen like we see the hardware. They are programs.
Programs are coded set of instructions that instruct the computer to perform specific task. In
other word, it tells/instructs the computer what the user intend to do. So to communicate with
the computer we would need software, before we can have software we would need to write a
program. To write a good program we need to develop algorithm and a flowchart. So, what are
they?

ALGORITHM /PSEUDO-CODE

Algorithm: An algorithm is a set of steps for solving a particular problem. To be an algorithm, a

set of rules must be unambiguous and have a clear stopping point”. There may be more than one
way to solve a problem, so there may be more than one algorithm for a given problem.

Pseudo-code: A pseudo-code is an algorithm but in this case it uses a mixture of English

statements, some mathematical notations, and selected keywords from a programming language.
Most at time when we say algorithm in computer science we mean pseudo-code. Before writing
an algorithm/pseudo-code for a problem, one should find out what is/are the inputs to the
algorithm and what is/are expected output after running the algorithm. Now let us take some
exercises to develop an algorithm for some simple problems: While writing algorithms we will
use following symbol for different operations:
PSEUDO-CODE
‘ +’ for Addition

‘ -’ for Subtraction
START
‘ *’ for Multiplication
1. INPUT A
‘ /’ for Division and
2. INPUT B
‘ ’ for assignment. For example A =X*3 means A will
3. Sum A + B have a value of X*3.
4. PRINT Sum SAMPLES OF ALGORITHM AND PSEUDOCODE
END OF ALGORITHM 25
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ALGORITHM

• Each step of an algorithm must be exact. This goes without saying. An algorithm must
be precisely and unambiguously described, so that there remains no uncertainty. An
instruction that says “shuffle the deck of card” may make sense to some of us, but the
machine will not have a clue on how to execute it, unless the detail steps are described.

An instruction that says “lift the restriction” will cause much puzzlement even to the
human readers.

• An algorithm must terminate. The ultimate purpose of an algorithm is to solve a

problem. If the program does not stop when executed, we will not be able to get any
result from it. Therefore, an algorithm must contain a finite number of steps in its
execution. Note that an algorithm that merely contains a finite number of steps may not
terminate during execution, due to the presence of ‘infinite loop’.

• An algorithm must be effective: An algorithm must provide the correct answer to the
problem.

• An algorithm must be general: An algorithm must solve every instance of the problem.
For example a program that computes the area of a rectangle should work on all possible
dimensions of the rectangle.

FLOWCHART

A flowchart is a graphical or pictorial representation use to solve a giving problem. To be more

precise, it is a graphical representation of algorithm. It shows sequence of operations and
procedures to be taken to solve the problem. This means by seeing a flow chart one can know
the operations performed and the sequence of these operations in a system. Algorithms are
nothing but sequence of steps for solving problems. So a flow chart can be used for representing
an algorithm. A flowchart, will describe the operations (and in what sequence) are required to

26
solve a given problem. You can see a flow chart as a blueprint of a design you have made for
solving a problem.

For example suppose you are going for a picnic with your friends then you plan for the activities
you will do there. If you have a plan of activities then you know clearly when you will do what
activity. Similarly when you have a problem to solve using computer or in other word you need
to write a computer program for a problem then it will be good to draw a flowchart prior to
writing a computer program. Flowchart is drawn according to defined rules.

Information system flowcharts show how data flows from source documents through the
computer to final distribution to users.

Program flowcharts show the sequence of instructions in a single program or subroutine.

Different symbols are used to draw each type of flowchart.

A Flowchart does the following:

 shows logic of an algorithm

 emphasizes individual steps and their interconnections e.g. control flow from one
action to the next

FLOWCHART SYMBOLS

The basic flowchart symbols are as follows:

SYMBOL NAME FUNCTION

Input/output Use for any input/output

operation

Process Indicate any type of

operation done in the CPU or
memory

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 Use to ask a question that can
be answered in a binary
format (Yes/No, True/False
Decision

On-page connector Provide connection of

program flow within the
same page

Off-page connector Provide connection of

program flow within

different pages

Shows direction of flow

Flow lines

EXAMPLES OF ALGORITHMS AND FLOWCHARTS

Problem 1: Find the area of a Circle of radius r.

Inputs to the algorithm:

Radius r of the Circle.

Expected output:

Area of the Circle

Algorithm:

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Step1: Start

Step2: Read\input the Radius r of the Circle

Step3: Area PI*r*r // calculation of area

Step4: Print Area

Step5: End

Start

Read r

Area=3.142*r*r

Print: Area

Problem2: Write an algorithm to read two numbers and find their sum.

End

Inputs to the algorithm:

num1. num2.

Expected output:
29
Sum of the two numbers.

Algorithm:

Step1: Start

Step2: Read\input: num1.

Step3: Read\input: num2.

Step4: Sum =num1+num2 // calculation of sum

Step5: Print: Sum

Step6: End

Start

Read: Num1, Num2

Sum=Num1+Num2

Print: Sum

End

Problem 3: Convert temperature Fahrenheit to Celsius

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Inputs to the algorithm:

Temperature in Fahrenheit

Expected output:

Temperature in Celsius

Algorithm:

Step1: Start

Step 2: Read Temperature in Fahrenheit F

Step 3: C 5/9*(F32)

Step 4: Print Temperature in Celsius: C

Step5: End

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 Start

Read F

C=5/9* (F - 32)

Print: C

End

TYPES OF LOGIC (CONTROL STRUCTURES) USED

In the late 1960s, two mathematicians, Carrado Boehm and Giuseppe Jocopini, proved that even
the most complex logic can be expressed using the three general types of logic or control
structures: Sequential (Begin – End), Selection (If-Then-Else) and Iteration (Do-While or
DoUntil). Naturally, these general types of logic or control structures can be combined in any
fashion or combination to produce a process which when executed will yield the desired result.

SEQUENTIAL (BEGIN – END)

The sequence is exemplified by sequence of statements place one after the other - the one above
or before another gets executed first. In flowcharts, sequence of statements is usually contained
in the rectangular process box.

SELECTION/ BRANCHING (IF-THEN-ELSE)

The branch refers to a binary decision based on some condition. If the condition is true, one of
the two branches is explored; if the condition is false, the other alternative is taken. This is

32
usually represented by the ‘if-then’ construct in pseudo-codes and programs. In flowcharts, this
is represented by the diamond-shaped decision box. This structure is also known as the selection
structure.

ITERATIVE/LOOP

The loop allows a statement or a sequence of statements to be repeatedly executed based on

some loop condition. It is represented by the ‘while’ and ‘for’ constructs in most programming
languages, for unbounded loops and bounded loops respectively. (Unbounded loops refer to
those whose number of iterations depends on the eventuality that the termination condition is
satisfied; bounded loops refer to those whose number of iterations is known before-hand.) In the
flowcharts, a back arrow hints the presence of a loop. A trip around the loop is known as
iteration. You must ensure that the condition for the termination of the looping must be satisfied
after some finite number of iterations, otherwise it ends up as an infinite loop, a common
mistake made by inexperienced programmers. The loop is also known as the repetition
structure.

The three basic control structures can be represented pictorially as shown below:

Sequential Selection Iteration

PRINCIPLES OF NETWORKING

Computer Networks

Networks are systems that are formed by links. For example, roads that connect groups of
people together create a physical network. Connections with your friends create your personal

33
network. Websites that allow individuals to link to each other’s pages are called social
networking sites.

People use the following networks every day:

• Mail delivery system

• Telephone system

• Public transportation system

• Corporate computer network

• The Internet

Networks share information and use various methods to direct the manner in which information
flows. The information on the network goes from one place to another, sometimes via different
paths, to arrive at the appropriate destination. For example, the public transportation system is a
network similar to a computer network. The cars, trucks, and other vehicles are like the
messages that travel within the network. Each driver defines a starting point (source computer)
and an ending point (destination computer). Within this system, there are rules such as stop
signs and traffic lights that control the flow from the source to the destination. A computer
network also uses rules to control the flow of data between hosts on a network.

A host is any device that sends and receives information on the network. Some devices can
serve either as hosts or peripherals. For example, a printer connected to your laptop that is on a
network is acting as a peripheral. If the printer is connected directly to a network, it is acting as
a host.

Many different types of devices can connect to a network:

• Desktop computers

• Laptop computers

• Tablet computers

• Smartphones

• Printers

• File and print servers

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 • Game consoles

• Home appliances

Computer networks are used globally in businesses, homes, schools, and government agencies.
Many of the networks are connected to each other through the Internet. A network can share
many different types of resources and data:

• Services, such as printing or scanning

• Storage space on removable devices, such as hard drives or optical drives

• Applications, such as databases

• Information, stored on other computers

• Documents

• Calendars, synchronizing between a computer and a smartphone

LOGICAL TOPOLOGIES

A logical topology describes how the hosts access the medium and communicate on the
network. The two most common types of logical topologies are broadcast and token passing. In

35
a broadcast topology, a host broadcasts a message to all hosts on the same network segment.
There is no order that hosts must follow to transmit data. Messages are sent on a First In, First
Out (FIFO) basis.

Token passing controls network access by passing an electronic token sequentially to each host.
If a host wants to transmit data, the host adds the data and a destination address to the token,
which is a specially-formatted frame. The token then travels to another host with the destination
address. The destination host takes the data out of the frame. If a host has no data to send, the
token is passed to another host.

PHYSICAL TOPOLOGIES

A physical topology defines the way in which computers, printers, and other devices are
connected to a network. The figure provides six physical topologies.

Bus Topology

In a bus topology, each computer connects to a common cable. The cable connects one
computer to the next, like a bus line going through a city. The cable has a small cap installed at
the end called a terminator. The terminator prevents signals from bouncing back and causing
network errors.

36
Ring Topology

In a ring topology, hosts are connected in a physical ring or circle. Because the ring topology
has no beginning or end, the cable is not terminated. A token travels around the ring stopping at
each host. If a host wants to transmit data, the host adds the data and the destination address to
the token. The token continues around the ring until it stops at the host with the destination
address. The destination host takes the data out of the token.

Star Topology

The star topology has a central connection point, which is normally a device such as a hub,
switch, or router. Each host on a network has a cable segment that attaches the host directly to
the central connection point. The advantage of a star topology is that it is easy to troubleshoot.
Each host is connected to the central device with its own wire. If there is a problem with that
cable, only that host is affected. The rest of the network remains operational.

37
Mesh Topology

The mesh topology connects all devices to each other. When every device is connected to every
other device, a failure of any cable or device along a connection does not affect the network.
The mesh topology is used in WANs that interconnect LANs.

INTERNET

The Internet commonly referred to as the ‘Net’ is better described than defined, as a global
network of computers. It is often described as a network of networks because it first began
through the linking of the existing local computer networks used by universities and
governmental organizations. The Internet is a constellation of computers around the world that
speak the same language so information travels seamlessly from one computer to another.
Globally, the Internet connects scientific research, educational, government, commercial and
business networks. When you connect to the Internet, your computer becomes part of the global
network of computers. The Internet is more than a technological marvel. The peace is quick,
with messages and information racing round the world in a few seconds. It has ushered in an era
of sweeping changes in networking and communication that has left no business, agency,
organization or government untouched.

38
How the Internet Developed

The Internet began in the 1960s when the US Department of Defense through ARPANET
(Advanced Research Project Agency Network) began creating a computer network that would
continue to function in the event of a major disaster. In 1969, four mainframe computers at a
U.S. university were linked into a network that transferred data on dedicated high-speed
transmission lines. Through the 1970s and 1980s new similar networks were created to link
educational institutions, government offices and military centers in the United States and other
countries. In the 1990s, as the Internet grew, private businesses and other regional network
providers took over the operation of the major Internet networks and the development of much
of the information available online. Private businesses, educational institutions, organizations
and individuals now develop much of the information content available online.

How Information is transmitted on the Internet

The Internet is a worldwide complex of small regional networks. To understand this, picture a
major road connecting large cities. Smaller roads link the cities to small towns where residents
travel on narrow residential streets. The high-speed Internet is the major road in this scenario.
Connected to it are smaller computer networks (functioning like smaller, less traveled roads)
that can share data information at high speeds. In order to enable different computers to
communicate and transmit packaged information with each other, a standard ‘protocol’ has been
established for transporting data. This Internet protocol is called Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) and allows all networks all over the world to communicate
with each other on the Internet.

When transmitting information over a network or the Internet, it is in the same binary form as
when it is stored on a computer, but the data has to be packaged for transmission. This
procedure is necessary because bits travelling freely on the network will have no meaning to
network devices. So before data is transmitted on the Internet, network software forms the data
into packets.

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Benefits of the Internet

Basically and generally, the benefits derivable from the utilization of the Internet are mainly as
follows:

• Speed/Time Saving: The speed of transmission on the Internet is the significant benefit
of the Internet. A letter or document that could take days to arrive by regular mail can be
sent to the other side of the world in minutes. Likewise, searching through a card
catalogue at a library can be a time consuming, tedious process, but you can search an
online version of the same catalogue in a fraction of the time. The speed of transmitting
information naturally saves time and money.

• Breadth/Reach: The Internet gives you access to a vast (and growing) collection of
databases, documents, computer software; these and almost any other kind of
information can be stored electronically.

• Cost Saving: Exchanging information via the Internet is less expensive than using
telephones or fax machines especially where telephone access fees are high. Likewise
marketing and advertising your products and services on the Internet can be less
expensive than using conventional printing and document-delivery methods.

• Two-way Communication: Audiences now have the means to respond directly to

sources of information, research and opinion.

• Trading: The Internet provides the opportunity for purchase and sale of goods and
services. Specifically, the Internet through the E-Commerce has provided the business
community, among others, the following benefits:

i. Improved response time to clients’ requests

ii. Improved competitive position

iii. Eased the process of concluding deals and financial transactions

iv. Extended market reach and increased revenue potentials

v. Increased consumer convenience and choice

vi. Reduced prices

vii. Improved customer service

40
SERVICES OFFERED ON THE INTERNET

The major Internet services are as follows:

Electronic Mail (e-mail): This is the most popular and most utilized Internet service especially
in the developing countries of the world. A conservative estimate puts the number of people
using the e-mail worldwide at more than 90 million people. E-mail is message sent from one
person to another via a computer network. The same e-mail can be sent easily to one address or
many addresses. Commercial electronic mail is used for the same purposes as the organization
wide mail system. But instead of being limited to members of one organization, the service is
made available to the public on subscription bases. E-mail messages are exchanged between
customers, suppliers, friends and business partners. E-mail service has cut down on the cost of
mailing or sending information thus saving time and money. E-mail is used as a marketing tool,
for example, a company, Dealaday.com uses e-mail to prospect for customers and sends group
e-mail to 10,000 user names all customers who have indicated they would like to receive emails.
With e-mail they receive a 7%, 8% and sometimes 10% response, unlike 1% or 2% response in
normal direct marketing.

The World Wide Web (WWW): The World Wide Web or the web is one of the Internet’s
most popular applications and it was launched in 1991. It is a graphical, easy–to-use way to
organize and present information, including texts, images, movies, sounds and more.

The World Wide Web has generated tremendous popular interest in the Internet. The www is
unique for two reasons. Firstly it is highly interactive media bringing documents in graphics,
audio and video. Secondly, it uses hyperlink, which provides connections between different
resources. It allows users to jump from one page to another.

A file in www is called the home page and usually contains a multimedia clip. A page can link
you to other web pages and Internet resources with clicks of a mouse. You can view and
download any information you need on any home page with the aid of software known as the
web browser.

41
File Transfer Protocol (ftp): File transfer protocol (ftp) is an Internet tool used to transfer files
between computers and it is the most common method of transferring files on the Internet.
Without viewing them as they are transferred the ftp enables you to access file on a remote
location on the Internet once you log on to an ftp site, and you are able to access all files on sites
and download them if you so desire. It is fairly easy to publish information on the Internet.
Many institutions maintain publicly accessible archive of information that they want to share
with others.

Telnet: Telnet is an Internet service that allows you to connect to a remote computer to use
specific databases or other applications available on that computer. Telnet is one of the first
applications widely used on the Internet. Many telnet applications are now available on the
World Wide Web where they are easier to use.

Internet Conference: This is an Internet service whereby different techniques are used to allow
people to discuss topics of mutual interest. A conference can be as simple as sending e-mail to
many different people or as complex as arranging to have people link different cities, see images
of each other and hear each other talk in real time- that is video conferencing. Internet
conferencing is possible, but the technology becomes more complex and the speed of the
connection becomes more important as you go from text only, to transmitting sound and video
in real time. Internet conference brings about tremendous savings on travelling, time and
money.

Internet Telephony: This is a service in which you can use the Internet as a voice telephone
line. With some types, both you and the person you are calling must have an Internet connection
and be online at the time you wish to talk. Some companies also offer Internet-to- telephone
services where from your computer you can call any telephone number in the world. Internet
telephone services are inexpensive when you compare them with the conventional cost of
telephone services. If your organization spends a lot of money on long distance telephone calls,
this might be a good option for you. There are growing numbers of companies providing
Internet telephone services.

42
Internet Fax: Internet fax is a service that takes a special type of e-mail message and sends it to
a fax machine specified in the message. The message can be faxed to a computer (Internet-
toInternet).

THE INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP)

For a modem to bring information, it must have a number to dial. This is where an Internet
service provider (ISP) comes in. The ISP is the organization that gives a subscriber access to the
information super highway. So to be connected to the Internet you need to subscribe to an ISP.
There are several ISPs scattered all over the world; some of the popular ones are American

Online (AOL), UK Line and CompuServe. Here in Nigeria, some of the common ones are
Hyperia, Infoweb, Cyberspace, Linkserv, Nigeria Online, Nigeria Net, Nitel, Nova, Prodigy,
etc. The choice of an ISP depends mostly on the effectiveness in the transmission of
information, that is, speed of service is an important criterion for selecting an ISP. The
efficiency of an ISP, in terms of speed of transmission of information, can be determined by the
bandwidth it can support. A bandwidth is a measure of the amount of data line, satellite link etc.
The bandwidth available determines the total capacity of an ISP to move data anywhere in the
world.

INTRANET

An intranet is a local area network that companies use to distribute information and speed up the
movement of data within offices. In other words an intranet allows the job of processing to be
distributed among multiple computers. Intranet activities usually take place behind secure

‘firewalls’ that only authorized users have access to.

An intranet can span multiple business locations via the Internet. Intranets are built using the
same standard Internet software such as TCP/IP, e-mail client, web browser and telephone
dialer.

EXTRANET

When a company makes open its internal network or intranet to selected business partners, the
intranet becomes an extranet. Suppliers, distributors and other authorized users can then connect
43
to the company’s network over the ‘Net’ or through virtual private networks. Once inside, they
can view the data the company makes available.

COMPUTER MEMORY

The main function of computer memory is to store software. Computer memory is divided into
two: Primary memory and Secondary memory.

Primary memory

Primary memory is divided into Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory
(ROM).

Secondary memory:

Secondary memory are called storage device. Example of secondary memory devices are: Hard
disk, floppy disks, CD ROMs etc

NOTE:

• The CPU can read and write to RAM but can only read from the ROM but not write
into ROM.

• RAM is volatile but ROM is not volatile.

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

Read-only memory (ROM) chips are located on the motherboard and other circuit boards. ROM
chips contain instructions that can be directly accessed by a CPU. Basic instructions for
operation, such as booting the computer and loading the operating system, are stored in ROM.
ROM chips retain their contents even when the computer is powered down. The contents cannot
be erased or changed by normal means.

NOTE:

Read only memory (ROM) chips: Information is written to a ROM chip when it is
manufactured. A ROM chip cannot be erased or re-written and is obsolete.

44
CATEGORIES OF ROM

 Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)

Programmable read only memory. Information is written to a PROM chip after it is

manufactured. A PROM chip cannot be erased or re-written.

 Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. Information is written to an EPROM

chip after it is manufactured. An EPROM chip can be erased with exposure to UV light.
Special equipment is required.

 Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

Electrically erasable programmable read only memory. Information is written to an

EEPROM chip after it is manufactured. EEPROM chips are also called Flash ROMs. An
EEPROM chip can be erased and re-written without having to remove the chip from the
computer.

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

There are three categories of programming languages:

1. Machine languages (ML)

2. Assembly languages (AL)

3. High-level languages (HLL)

The ML and AL are classified as Low-Level Languages (LLL).

Machine Lanaguage (ML)

This is the fundamental language of the computer’s processor. It is made up of binary-coded

instructions, which is used directly by the computer. All programs are converted into ML before
they can be executed. The language consists of 0’s and 1’s. Example: 100101, 010011
Advantages

• Fast and efficient

• Machine friendly

• No translation is required

45
Disadvantages

• Not portable

• Not programmer friendly

Assembly Lanaguage (AL)

Also a low-level language (LLL) which is similar to the machine language is the AL. It was
developed to make programmers job easier. It uses symbolic operation code to represent the
machine operation code.

Symbolic operation codes are in an easy-to-remember form called mnemonics.

Assembly languages have some of the advantages and all of the disadvantages of machine
languages.

Advantages

It is machine friendly as compare to high-level language

Disadvantages

• Not portable

• Not programmer friendly

Compare the following machine language and assembly language programs:

8086 Machine language program for 8086 Assembly language program for
var1=var1+ var2 var1=var1+ var2

1010 0001 0000 0000 0000 0000 MOV AX, var1

0000 0011 0000 0110 0000 0000 0000 0010 ADD AX, var2

1010 0011 0000 0000 0000 0000 MOV var!, AX

High Level Lanaguage (HLL)

The HLL began to appear in the 1950’s – COBOL is an example of such early HLL used to
create complex computer programs without necessarily knowing how the CPU works and
without writing a large number of low-level instructions. The HLL uses English like statements
such as PRINT, WHILE, GOTO etc.
46
A high level language has two primary components:

1. A set of built-in language primitives and grammatical rules

2. A translator

HLL program consists of English-like statements that are governed by a strict syntax.

Advantages

• Portable or machine independent

• Programmer-friendly

Disadvantages

• Not as efficient as low level languages

• Need to be translated

Examples are C++, Visual Basic, Pascal, etc.

LANGAUGE TRANLATORS

As mention earlier, one of the disadvantages of a high-level language is that it must be

translated to machine language. High level languages are translated using translators.

A language translator translates a high level language program or an assembly language

program into a machine language program.

TYPES OF TRANSLATORS

• Assemblers

• Compilers

• Translators

ASSEMBLERS

An assembler is a program that translates an assembly language program, written in a particular

assembly language, into a particular machine language

COMPILERS

A compiler is a program that translates a high level language program, written in a particular
high level language, into a particular machine language.

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INTERPRETERS

An interpreter is a program that translates a high level language program, one instruction at a
time, into machine language. As instruction is translated it is immediately executed. Interpreted
program are generally slower than compiled programs because compiled programs can be
optimised to get faster execution.

NOTE:

• Some high level languages are compiled while others are interpreted.

• There are also languages like Java, which are first compiled and then interpreted.

48