A Study on Advanced

Microprocessors
INDEX
1. Introduction
2. Architecture
3. Pin Diagram
4. Functioning
5. Special Features
6. Applications
7. Conclusion
8. References
1. Introduction
Advanced microprocessors are sophisticated, high-
performance central processing units (CPUs) designed
to execute a wide range of complex instructions at high
speed. These microprocessors are integral to modern
computing devices, ranging from personal computers
and smartphones to embedded systems, automobiles,
and high-end servers. They offer improvements in
speed, efficiency, parallelism, and energy consumption,
enabling multi-tasking, gaming, AI processing, and
more. Their design incorporates multi-core
architectures, large cache memories, and advanced
fabrication technologies like nanometer-scale
integration.
2. Architecture
The architecture of an advanced microprocessor is a blueprint that
defines how various internal components interact to execute
instructions. The major components include:

- Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic (addition,

subtraction) and logical (AND, OR, NOT) operations. It is the
core computational engine.
- Control Unit (CU): Directs the flow of data and instructions
within the processor by generating control signals.
- Registers: Small, fast memory units used to hold data
temporarily during execution (e.g., accumulator, program
counter, instruction register).
- Cache Memory (L1, L2, L3): High-speed memory that stores
frequently used data and instructions to speed up execution.
- Clock Generator: Synchronizes all internal operations of the
processor using a clock pulse.
- Pipelining: Technique where multiple instruction phases
(fetch, decode, execute) are overlapped to increase
throughput.
- Bus Interface Unit (BIU): Manages communication between
the CPU and other components like memory and I/O devices.
- Execution Units: Specialized hardware blocks for handling
complex operations such as floating-point arithmetic, SIMD,
or vector processing.
3. Pin Diagram
The Intel 8086 microprocessor is a commonly studied example for
understanding pin configuration. It has 40 pins divided across several
categories:

Pin No 1
Pin no 1 is the Vss or Ground. It is used to connect with the
negative terminal of the power source and ground of the
circuit.
Pin No 2 to 16
These are the bidirectional pins. These pins are used to carry
both address and data bits. The microprocessor 8086 uses a
20-line address bus. Pins 2 to 16 are named as AD14 to AD0.
Here, A indicates the address and D indicates the data. These
Pin No 17
Pin no 17 is the NMI or Non-maskable interrupt. It is used to
provide the edge-triggered interrupt signal.
Pin No 18
It is named as INTR. It is also an interrupt pin. It is sampled
during the last cycle of the instruction.
Pin No 19
It is used to connect an external crystal oscillator to the
microprocessor. During the program or instruction execution,
the oscillator provides the pulse or timing signal to the
microprocessor. The clock signal is in the form of an
asymmetric square wave. The examples of clock frequency
are 5MHz, 8MHz, 10MHz.
Pin No 20
Pin no is also the Vss or Ground terminal and is to be
connected to the negative terminal of the power source.
Pin No 21
Pin no 21 is the RESET. It is used to reset the microprocessor
or terminate its all current program executions. The signal is
to be high for the first 4 clock cycles to reset the
microprocessor and all the devices connected to it.
Pin No 22
Pin no 22 is READY. It is used to communicate between the
microprocessor and external devices so that they can notify
that they are ready to communicate or ready to send or
receive signals. It works with the active high signal. That
means when the signal is high, it indicates that the devices
are ready. If the signal is low, it indicates that the devices are
not ready, so wait for it.
Pin No 23
Using this 'Wait' instruction is to be provided. When the
signal in this pin is low the program execution in the
microprocessor remains continuing but if the signal in this pin
is high it pauses the operation.
Pin No 24 and 25
In the maximum mode of the microprocessor, QS1 and QS0
are used for the queue status signals such as whether 'there
is no operation', 'first-byte opcode', 'empty queue', and
'subsequent byte from the queue'. In the minimum mode,
these are works as INTA(Interrupt acknowledge) and
ALE(Address Latch Enable)
Pin No 26 to 28
Maximum Mode - S0, S1, and S2 are the status pins. During
the read, write operations with memory or any
communication with I/O devices, these pins show the status
such as 'interrupt acknowledgment', 'I/O read and write
operations', 'Memory Read and Write operations', 'Halt',
'Code Acess', etc.
Minimum Mode - 26, 27, and 28 are work as DEN', DT/R', and
IO'/M respectively.
Pin No 29
In the maximum mode, it acts as a Lock'. It is used to lock the
bus while a program executes so other systems cannot use
the system bus.
In the minimum mode, it acts as a Write(WR') pin that is used
to store data to the external memory.
Pin No 30 and 31
In the maximum mode, they act as RQ'/GT1' and RQ'/GT0'.
The RQ/GT means request/grant. These are the bi-directional
pins and they are used to request the processor to leave the
system bus.
In the minimum mode, they act as HOLD and HLDA(hold
acknowledge) respectively.
Pin No 32
It is the Read(RD') pin. It is an active low pin and is used to
fetch data from the external memory to the microprocessor.
Pin No 33
Using this pin the operating mode of the microprocessor can
be changed. When the signal in this pin is low, the
microprocessor will operate in maximum mode, and when
the signal in this pin is high, the microprocessor will operate
in minimum mode.
Pin No 34
Pin no 34 is BHE'/S7. That means Bus High Enable/ Status.
Bus High Enable is the active low and status is the active high.
Pin No 35 to 38
Pins from 35 to 38 are used for the carrying of addresses and
data bytes. Also, they use it for status.
Pin no 39
It is used to carry addresses and data bytes.
Pin No 40
Pin no 40 is the Vcc and it is used to connect the positive
terminal of the power supply.
4. Functioning
The functioning of an advanced microprocessor is based on a
systematic cycle called the Instruction Cycle, which includes the
following stages:
1. Instruction Fetch
• The Program Counter (PC) holds the address of the next
instruction to be executed.
• This address is sent to the Memory Address Register
(MAR), and a request is made to fetch the instruction
from main memory.
• The instruction is then fetched and placed into the
Instruction Register (IR).
• In modern processors, prefetching allows fetching
multiple instructions in advance to optimize
performance.
2. Instruction Decode
• The Control Unit (CU) interprets the binary-encoded
instruction in the Instruction Register.
• It identifies the operation (opcode) to be performed and
the operands involved.
• If the instruction involves registers or memory, the
necessary addresses are decoded using the Register
Address Decoder or memory management unit (MMU).
•
3. Operand Fetch (if required)
• If the instruction requires data (e.g., in ADD A, B), the
processor fetches the operands.
• The data may be located in:
o Registers (faster access)
o Cache memory
o Main memory (RAM)
4. Instruction Execution
• The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) or Floating-Point Unit
(FPU) performs the actual operation, such as addition,
subtraction, logical operations, or comparison.
• For data movement instructions, data is copied from
source to destination.
• For branching instructions, the Program Counter (PC) is
updated to a new value.
5. Memory Access (if required)
• If the instruction is a read/write instruction (e.g., MOV,
LOAD, STORE), then:
o Read: Data is fetched from memory into a register.
o Write: Data from a register is written back to
memory.
• The address is calculated using Effective Address
Calculation logic.
•
6. Write Back
• The result of the ALU or memory operation is stored in
the destination register.
• The Status Flags (Zero, Carry, Sign, Overflow, etc.) are
updated based on the result.
• These flags help in decision-making for conditional
operations.
7. Increment Program Counter
• After execution, the PC is incremented to point to the
next instruction unless modified by jump or branch
instructions.
• In pipelined architectures, multiple PCs or instruction
queues may be managed simultaneously.
5. Special Features
- Multi-core Architecture: Enables parallel processing by
incorporating multiple independent cores.
- Hyper-Threading: Simultaneously executes multiple
threads on each core, improving resource utilization.
- Out-of-Order Execution: Improves efficiency by
executing instructions as resources become available,
rather than strictly following program order.
- Branch Prediction: Reduces instruction pipeline stalls by
guessing the outcome of conditional branches.
- Virtualization Support: Allows multiple operating
systems to run simultaneously on a single physical
processor.
- Integrated Graphics Processing Unit (iGPU): Handles
graphical computations without a dedicated GPU.
- Power Management: Features like dynamic frequency
scaling and sleep modes to optimize energy consumption.
- Advanced Instruction Sets: Support for SIMD, AVX, and
cryptographic instructions for specialized tasks.
6. Applications
- Personal Computing: Desktops and laptops for
general-purpose computing
- Mobile Devices: Smartphones and tablets using ARM-
based processors
- Embedded Systems: Consumer electronics,
automotive systems, and IoT devices
- Industrial Automation: Robotics, CNC machines, and
monitoring systems
- Healthcare: Imaging equipment, patient monitoring
systems
- Aerospace and Defence: Navigation, control systems,
and mission-critical applications
- Cloud Computing and Data Centers: Servers using
high-end multi-core processors
7. Conclusion
Advanced microprocessors form the backbone of
modern digital systems. Their ever-evolving
architecture and specialized features continue to push
the boundaries of computational power and efficiency.
As demands for faster, smaller, and more power-
efficient processors grow, the role of microprocessors
becomes even more crucial in shaping the future of
technology.
8. References
- Intel & AMD processor manuals
- NPTEL and MIT OpenCourseWare lectures
- "Advanced Microprocessors and Peripherals" by A.K. Ray and K.M.
Bhurchandi
- Intel ARK database (ark.intel.com)
- AMD official documentation (amd.com)