SYNOPSIS

Square matrix
A matrix in which number of rows and columns are equal

Matrix addition
1) matrix addition is commutative ( A+B = B+A)
2) matrix addition is associative A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C
3) additive identity is zero matrix A+0 = 0+A =A
4) additive inverse is negative of a matrix A +(-A) =(-A) +A =0
5) Cancellation laws hold good in the case of addition of matrices A+B = A+C implies
B=C

Matrix multiplication
1. Matrix multiplication satisfies closure property (i.e. If two square matrices of order n
then the product AB is also a square matrix of order n)
2. Matrix multiplication is not commute in general (i.e. AB is not equal to BA)
3. If AB = BA, then two matrices A and B are called commute
4. If AB = -BA, then the two matrices A and B are called anti commute.
5. If A and B are square matrices of same order “n” then A and B are commute if and
only if A-kI and B-kI are commute

6. ( A  B) 2 = A2 + B 2  2 AB , provided AB = BA

7. ( A  B) 2 = A2 + B 2 , provided AB + BA = 0

8. A2 − B2 = ( A + B )( A − B ) , provided AB = BA and A2n − B2n = ( An + Bn )( An − B n ) ,

provided AB = BA

9. ( I + A) 2 = A2 + 2 A + I and ( I + A)3 = A3 + 3 A2 + 3 A + I and so ….on

10. ( AB)C = A( BC ) , if A, B and C are three matrices ,such that ( AB)C and A( BC ) are
defined.
11. Let A and B be two matrices such that AB = BA then for every natural number “n”
then

i) An B = BAn ii). ( AB) n = ( BA) n iii). ( AB) n = An B n

12. If A is any matrix of order m x n such that AB and BA are both defined then B is a
matrix of order n x m
13. Let A be square matrix and m, n are positive integral values then

iv) ( A−1 ) = A− n (for A non singular only)

n

i) Am An = Am+n

ii) ( Am ) = Amn
n
iii) Ao = I , where A is singular or non singular matrix

Transpose of a matrix

If A = ( aij ) then AT = ( a ji )
mxn nxm

1) ( A  B ) = AT  BT
T

2). ( kA) = kAT

T

3) ( AT ) = A
T

4) ( AB ) = BT AT
T

( ABC )
T
5). = CT BT AT

Trace of a matrix
n
1). Trace of a matrix A = ( aij ) is a ii
nxn
i =1

2). Trace ( AAT ) is non negative

3). Trace (AB) = Trace (BA) , if A,B are the square matrices of same order
4). Trace (ABC) = Trace (BCA) = Trace (CAB), if A,B,C are the square matrices of same
order
5).Trace (mA + nB) = m.Trace (A) +n.Trace (B) wherem,n are real numbers.
6). Trace (A) = 8, and A is a square matrix of order 3, then Trace (8A) = 64

7). Trace ( C −1 AC ) =Trace (A) = Trace( AC −1C )

Null or zero matrix:

A matrix whose all elements are zero, is called null or zero matrix.

Upper or lower triangular matrix

1. A square matrix A = ( aij ) is said to be upper triangular matrix if aij = 0 for all i  j

1 2 4  a 0 0
Example: i)  0 6 3  
ii) if A = b c
 0  then A =acf
 0 0 5   d e f 

2. A square matrix A = ( aij ) is said to be lower triangular matrix iff aij = 0 for all i  j

1 0 0
Example:  6 6 0 

 −5 2 5 

3. Addition and Product of two upper / lower triangular matrices is also an upper /
lower triangular matrix
4. If A is upper or lower triangular matrix, order n x n, then the minimum number of
n(n − 1)
zero elements in A, is
2
Symmetric and skew symmetric matrix

1. A square matrix A = ( aij ) is symmetric if aij = a ji for all i,j (i. e. A = A T)

nxn

2. A square matrix A = ( aij ) is skew symmetric if aij = − a ji for all i,j (i. e. A = -AT)
nxn

3. All the elements of main diagonal of a skew symmetric matrix are zero

(aij = −a ji for all i, j and if i = j, aii = −aii  aii = 0 )

4. If A is square matrix then A +AT is always symmetric and A-AT is always skew
 1 1 
symmetric.  A = (2 A) = ( A + AT A − AT ) 
 2 2 
5. Every square matrix can be expressed as a sum of symmetric and skew symmetric
matrices.
6. If A and B are symmetric matrices of same order then
i).(A + B) is symmetric,
ii) (AB + BA) is symmetric
iii) AB – BA is skew symmetric matrix.
iv) AB is symmetric provided AB = BA Otherwise AB is not necessarily be a symmetric
matrix

7. If A is symmetric (skew symmetric) and B is a square matrix, such that BT . A.B exists,
then BT . A.B is also symmetric matrix (skew symmetric)

8. If A and B are symmetric matrices and commute then A−1 B, AB −1 , A−1 B −1 are also

symmetric matrices. ( AB = BA  B = A −1
BA  BA−1 = A−1B )
9. A square matrix,which is both symmetric as well as skew symmetric, then the matrix
is zero matrix

10. If A is a symmetric matrix then An is also a symmetric matrix for all positive integer “n”

11. If A is a skew symmetric matrix then An is, a symmetric matrix for all even positive
integer “n” and a skew symmetric matrix for all odd positive integer “n”
12. If A is a skew symmetric matrix of order n x n, then the maximum number of non
zeroelements is n(n-1)
13. If A is a symmetric matrix of order n x n, then the maximum number of non zero
elements in A, is n2

Diagonal matrix/scalar matrix

1. Diagonal matrix: A square matrix A = (aij ) nn is called a diagonal matrix if all the
elements except those in the leading diagonal, are zero. (i.e. aij = 0 for i  j ) Example:
1 0 0 
0 6 0 
 
 0 0 5 

2. A diagonal matrix of order of n x n having d1 , d 2 , d3 ,..., d n as diagonal elements is

denoted by diag[d1 , d 2 , d3 ,..., d n ]

3. Scalar matrix: A square matrix A = (aij ) nn is called a scalar matrix if

2 0 0
 
aij = 0 for i  j and aij = c for all I = j and c  0 Example:  0 2 0 
 0 0 2
 

4. If D1 , D2 are two diagonal matrices of order n x n, then

i). D1  D2 , D1.D2 are also diagonal matrices of order n x n

ii). D1.D2 = D2 .D1

iii). D12 + D 2 2 is also a diagonal matrix

iv) A = diag[d1 , d 2 , d3 ,..., d n ] then An = diag[d1n , d 2 n , d 3n ,..., d n n ]

6. If D = diag (a, b, c) is a diagonal matrix or scalar matrix, then

1 1 1
i). D = det( D) = abc ii). D −1 = diag  , ,  = diag ( a −1 , b −1c −1 ) provided abc  0
a b c

(i.e adj(diag)=diag)

7. D is a scalar matrix, it commutes (with respect to multiplication) with every square

matrix of same order as D (where as AD is not always equal to DA)Where D- DIAGNOL
MATRIX

8. Let A and B be two diagonal matrices then AB is diagonal matrix and also AB = BA(Diagnol matrices can
commutate with each other)
Unit matrix
Unit matrix is a diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal elements are unity

aij = 1 if i = j
A square matrix A = (aij ) nn is called a unit matrix if
aij = 0 if i  j

Comparable matrix
Two matrices A and B are said to be comparable if they have the same order (i.e. number
of rows of A and B are same and also the number of columns)

Determinant of a matrix:
1). If A and B are two square matrices such that AB is defined then det (AB) =
det(A).det(B)

2). If A is a nxn matrix then det( A) =  n det( A) and det(-A) = (−1) n det( A)

3). det( AT ) = det( A)

Adjoint of matrix:

1. Let A = ( aij ) be a square matrix of order n and let Cij cofactor of aij in A. Then the
T
transpose of cofactors of elements of A is called adjoint of A. adj(A) =  cij 

(where cij = cofactor of a ji )

i.e.Adjoint of a matrix A, is a collection of cofactors of transposed matrix A.

3. Adj(AB) = adj(B) adj(A) and Adj(AB) = AB ( AB )

−1
= AB .B−1.A−1

[provided (AB) is not a singular matrix]

1
4. ( adj ( A) ) = adj ( AT )
T
5. ( adj ( A)) −1 = .A
A

6. If A is a matrix of order n x n, then

Adj(A) = A A−1 adj ( A) = A

n −1
adj ( A) =  A
n −1
=  n ( n−1) A
n −1

n−2 ( n −1)2 ( n −1)2

adj (adj ( A)) = A
2
.A adj (adj ( A)) = A adj (adj ( A)) =  n ( n−1) A

n 2 −3 n + 3 ( n −1)3
adj (adj (adj ( A))) = A . A−1 adj (adj (adj ( A))) = A

f). If A is a matrix of order 2 x 2, then

Adj(A) = A A−1 adj( A) = A

adj (adj ( A)) = A adj(adj( A)) = A

adj(adj (adj ( A))) = A .A−1 adj(adj(adj( A))) = A

7. a) Adjoint of a diagonal matrix is diagonal matrix and

b) Adjoint of unit matrix is also unit matrix.
c) Adjoint of an orthogonal matrix, is also an orthogonal matrix
d) Adjoint of a symmetric matrix, is also a symmetric matrix
e) Adjoint of a skew symmetric matrix, is symmetric matrix, if order of the matrix is odd
and SKEWsymmetric if order of the matrix is even
8. Adjoint of k.I is k n −1.I where I is unit matrix of order n x n and k is a real number

9. Adjointof k . A is k n −1.adj ( A) where A is a matrix of order n x n, and k is a real number.

10. If A is non singular matrix, then adj(A) is also a non singular matrix
11. If A is a square matrix such that det(A) = 0 then det(adjA) = 0

12. If A = ( aij ) and Cij is a cofactor of aij of A and C = ( Cij ) then C = A

n −1
nxn

13. Let A be a square matrix of order 3 such that transpose of inverse of A, is itself then
adj(adj( A) = 1

(( A ) = A  A−1 = AT  AAT = I  A = 1)

−1 T

Inverse of a matrix
1. A square matrix, is said to be singular matrix if its determinant value is equal to zero
2. A square matrix, is said to be invertible if it is non sigular
(i.e.non singular  invertible and singular  non invertible)

adj ( A) 1 −1
3. A−1 = and A−1 = = A and hence inverse of a matrix is unique
A A

4. If A and B are two invertible matrices and their product is defined then AB also
invertible and

i) ( A−1 ) = A
−1

ii) ( AB ) = B−1 A−1 ,

−1

iii) ( ABC ) = C −1B−1 A−1

−1

iv) ( A−1 )T = ( AT )
−1

1 −1
v) ( kA) = A , k  R − 0
−1

5. if A and B are two non singular matrices of same order then A = B−1 AB

6. If A and B are commute then A−1 and B−1 are also commute.

(given AB = BA , ( AB ) = B−1 A−1 → 1 and ( BA) = A−1B−1 → 2 from 1 and 2)

−1 −1

7. If A and B are two square matrices of same order and A is non singular matrix,
thenfor a positive integer n, ( A−1BA) = A−1B n A
n

( A BA)
n
T
= AT B n A
7a) A is an orthogonal & B is a square matrix of same order then

8. Let A,B,C be the three square matrices of the same order and A is non singular then
i). AB = AC  B = C ( left cancellation law)

ii). BA = CA  B = C (right cancellation law)

1 2  −2 0   0 0
iii). Let A =   B=  and C =   and AB = AC but it does not imply B = C
3 6  0 0  −1 0 
because det (A) = 0
9. Inverse of a symmetric matrix (if exists) is also a symmetric matrix
10. Inverse of a matrix is unique, if it exists

Orthogonal matrix

1. A matrix is said to be an orthogonal if AAT = I = AT A and hence AT = A−1

2. If A is an orthogonal matrix, then ( AT ) = A  ( A−1 ) = A

−1 T

3. Determinant value of an orthogonal matrix, is either 1 or -1and hence non singular

4. Product of two orthogonal matrices is also an orthogonal matrix (sum of the two
orthogonal matrices is not necessarily to be orthogonal matrix)

5. Transpose and Inverse of an orthogonal matrix is also an orthogonal matrix ( AT , A−1

are also orthogonal)

6. If A is a skew symmetric matrix of even order and A2 + I = 0 , then A is an orthogonal

matrix.

a b
 is an orthogonal matrix then a + b = 1, c + d = 1 and ac + bd = 0 and hence
2 2 2 2
8. If 
c d
sum of the squares of the elements, in any row of an orthogonal matrix is 1.

 a b   a b
 where a + b = 1 is orthogonal
2 2
i). Every 2 x 2 matrix of the form  ,
 b a   b a 
matrix

 cos  sin  
Example for orthogonal matrix  
 − sin  cos  

10. If li , mi , ni (i = 1, 2,3) denote the direction cosines of 3 mutual perpendicular vectors then
 l1 m1 n1 
 
A =  l2 m2 n2  is an orthogonal matrix (i.e. l l
1 2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0, & l12 + m12 + n12 = 1etc )
l m3 n3 
3

Periodic / Idempotent/Nilpotent/Involutory matrices

1. A square matrix A is called periodicif Ak +1 = A , where k is a positive integer.

If k is the least positive integer for which Ak +1 = A then k is said to be period of matrix A

For k = 1 A2 = A , then the square matrix is said to be idempotent, and its determinant
value is 0 or 1
2. A square matrix said to be nilpotent,if An = 0 ,(n natural number) positive n is index
and its determinant value is 0

3. A square matrix said to be involutory, if A2 = I and its determinant value is 1 or -1

4. At A2 = A Then A is an idempotent matrices

5. If AB = A and BA = B then A and B are idempotent matrices

(i.e. B = B2 = B3 = B 4 = ...... and A = A2 = A3 = A4 = ...... )

6. If AB = A and BA = B then AT and BT are also idempotent matrices

( I − A)
n
7. If A is an idempotent matrix then = I − A where I is unit matrix and n is a
natural number
8. If B is an idempotent matrix and A = I – B then
i). A is also idempotent matrix
ii). AB = BA = 0
If A is involutory if and only if (I + A) is idempotent
9. If an idempotent matrix is a skew symmetric then it is a null matrix.

 12 12 13 

 
10. If  12 2 2 2 3  is idempotent matrix, then 12 + 2 2 + 32 = 1
 13 2 3 32 


11. An idempotent matrix which is skew symmetric has to be a null matrix.

12. If A is nilpotent matrix of index 2, then ( I − A) = I − nA where I is unit matrix and n is

n

a natural number

( I − A) = 2n−1 ( I − A) where I is unit matrix and n is a

n
13. If A is an involutary matrix then
natural number
14. If A is an involutory matrix then its multiplicative inverse, is itself.

15. If ( I + A)( I − A) = 0 ,then A, is involuntory matrix

Unimodular matrix
1. A square matrix is said to be uni modular if its determinant value is 1

Some standard results

1). If A is a square matrix of odd order and det(A) =1 and AAT = I , then A − I = 0

7). Consider the system of homogenous linear equations

ax + by + cz = 0, bx + cy + az = 0, cx + ay + bz = 0,

i). If a + b + c  0 and a 2 + b 2 + c 2 = ab + bc + ca then the system represent three identical

planes
ii). If a + b + c = 0 and a 2 + b 2 + c 2  ab + bc + ca then the system represents three planes
which intersect in a common line

iii). If a + b + c  0 and a 2 + b 2 + c 2  ab + bc + ca then the system represent the planes meeting

at a point.

iv). If a + b + c = 0 and a 2 + b 2 + c 2 = ab + bc + ca then the system represent the whole of the

three dimensional space

9). If A is a skew symmetric and B = ( I − A) −1 ( I + A) , then B is orthogonal matrix

12. If A and B are square matrices and AB = 0 then

(i) If A is non singular then B = O
(ii) If A is non zero matrix then |B| = 0 (similarity for A)
(iii) If A and B both are non zero matrices then |A| = |B| = 0
14. Determinant of a skew symmetric matrix of odd order is zero and of even order is a
perfect square
Solving linear equations
a). Consider the system of linear equations

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 , a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d 2 , a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3 , and

 a1 b1 c1   x  d1 
 
A =  a2 b2 c2  X =  y  and B =  d 2 
   
a b3 c3  z d 
 3    3

adj ( A)
i). If A  0 , then system of equations has unique solution i.e. X = A−1.B = .B
A

ii). If A = 0 , then system of equations has either no solution or infinitely many solutions

iii). the system of equations has no solution, then If det(A) = 0 and adj(A).B is not
equal to zero (converse may not be true)

iv). If the system of equations has infinitely many solutions, then det(A) = 0 and
adj(A).B =0
(converse may not be true)
b). Consider the system of linear equations

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 , a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d 2 , a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3 , and

a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
 = a2 b2 c2 ’  x = d 2 b2 c2  y = a2 d2 c2 and  z = a2 b2 d2
a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3 a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3

x y 
i). If,   0 , then system of equations has unique solution i.e. x = , y= and z = z
  
ii). If  = 0 , then system of equations has either no solution or infinitely many solutions
iii). If the system of equations has no solution, then  = 0 and not all  x ,  y ,  z zero

iv). If the system of equations has infinitely many solutions, then  = 0 and all  x ,  y ,  z zero

v). For getting many solutions ,

consider two equations out of given three equations and let one of the variable (say) z = k
solve for x, y and z values in terms of k
substitute these values in the third equation
If the equation is satisfied with these values, then the system has many solutions
otherwise the system has no solution
c). Consider the system of linear Homogenous equations

a1 b1 c1
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = 0, a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = 0, a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = 0, and  = a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3

i). If   0 , then system of equations has unique solution (trivial)

ii). If  = 0 , then system of equations has infinitely many solutions (non-trivial) ( not all
x,y,z zero)

d). Consider the system of linear equations

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 , a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d 2 , a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3 , and the system of equations has

infinitely many solutions, this implies the planes, represented by the equations are
i).all the three planes are coplanar
ii). any two are coplanar
iii). not coplanar but intersect in a line
e). Consider the system of linear equations

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 , a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d 2 , a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3 , and If the system of equations has no

solution, this implies the planes represented by the equations are
i) all three planes are parallel
ii) Any two planes are parallel
iii) None of them is parallel (Here we say three planes form a triangular prism.
Condition for the planes to form a triangular prism is  = 0 and no two planes
of the given three planes are parallel)

Properties of determinants:
If A =  aij  , be a square matrix of order n , then sum of the product of the elements of
n xn

one row or column with their corresponding cofactors of the same row or column, is
n
equal to its determinant (i.e.  a (co factor of a
j =1
ij 1j )= A )

Sum of the product of the elements of one row or column with their corresponding
cofactors of the same row or column of the other row or column is equal to zero. its
n
determinant (i.e. a
j =1
ij (co factor of a2 j ) = 0 )

1. Only square matrices have determinants and the matrices which are not square do
not have determinants
2. The value of determinant remains unchanged if rows and columns are interchanged
(.i.e. A = AT )

3. If a row or coloumn of a determinant consists of all zeroes then the value of the
determinant is zero.
4. If any two or two coloumns of determinant are identical or proportional then the value
of the determinant is zero
5. If any two row or two columns of a determinant are interchanged , then the value of
the determinant changes by minus sign only.
6. If each element of a row or column of a determinant is multiplied by a constant k,
then the value of the determinant is k times the value of the determinant (i.e. If
A =  aij  then kA = k n A )
n xn

7. Let A be square matrix such that each element of a row or column of A is expressed as
a sum of two terms, then the determinant of A can be expressed as the sum of two or
more matrices of the same order.
12. If A is a matrix of order 2 x 3 and B is a matrix of order 3 x 2 and det(AB) = 4 then
det(BA) = 0

 b1 b2   b1a1 + b2 a4 b1a2 + b2 a5 b1a3 + b2 a6 

 a1 a2 a3 
Let A =   B =  b3 b4  det ( BA ) = b3a1 + b4 a4
  b3a2 + b4 a5 b2 a3 + b4 a6 
 a4 a5 a6  b5 b6  b5 a1 + b6 a4 b5 a2 + b6 a5 b5 a3 + b6 a6 

 a1 a2 a3   b1 b2 0
=  a4 a5 a6   b3 b4 0  = 0
 0 0 0  b5 b6 0 

Some standard results:

a b c
1. A = b c a = − ( a + b + c ) ( a 2 + b2 + c 2 − ab − bc − ca )
c a b
1
= − ( a + b + c ) ( (a − b)2 + (b − c)2 + (c − a)2 )
2
= 3abc − a3 − b3 − c3
 = −(a + b + c)(a + b + c 2 )(a + b 2 + c ) then
2
a b c a b c a b c
2
2. A = b c a = b c a.b c a
c a b c a b c a b

a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ab + bc + ca ab + bc + ca
= ab + bc + ca a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ab + bc + ca
ab + bc + ca ab + bc + ca a 2 + b2 + c2

bc − a 2 ca − b 2 ab − c 2
= ca − b 2 ab − c 2 bc − a 2
ab − c 2 bc − a 2 ca − b 2

a2 c2 2ac − b 2
= 2ab − c 2 b2 a2 =
b 2
2bc − a 2
c 2

1 a a2 1 a bc
3. 1 b b = (a − b)(b − c)(c − a ) = 1 b
2
ca
2
1 c c 1 c ab

1 a a3
4. 1 b b3 = ( a + b + c ) (a − b)(b − c)(c − a )
1 c c3

1 a2 a3
5. 1 b 2 b3 = ( ab + bc + ca ) (a − b)(b − c)(c − a )
1 c2 c3

a1 + pb1 b1 + qc1 c1 + ra1 a1 b1 c1 a+b b+c c+a a b c

6. a2 + pb2 b2 + qc2 c2 + ra2 = (1 + pqr ) a2 b2 c2 and hence b + c c + a a + b = 2 b c a
a3 + pb3 b3 + qc3 c3 + ra3 a3 b3 c3 c+a a+b b+c c a b