COMSATS University Islamabad, Virtual Campus

HUM122 Fundamentals of Psychology

Lecture 15 Handouts

Altruism
Rooted in the Latin word alter – meaning other. Altruism – means “living for others”. The key
component of this behavior is selflessness – an unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

Altruism refers to an individual acting in a way that will decrease its own survival chances, but
improve the survival chances of another individual. The Darwinian perspective emphasising
„survival of the fittest‟ gave the impression that selfishness was the norm. Pioneering work
involving the study of animals living in social groups in fact revealed that co-operation and
altruism are just as „natural‟ as selfishness.

History of Altruism

The French philosopher named August Comte coined the word altruism in 1851 and it was
added to the English dictionary two years later. However, all human kind has been
demonstrating altruism since the world‟s beginning. Altruism is studied today by psychologists,
biologists, theologians, anthropologists, political scientists, economists, sociologists,
mathematicians and more. Most societies acknowledge the importance of altruism in that it
benefits a community as a whole. Societies also understand that it is imperative to cooperate with
one another rather than strive on conflict. Thus, it helps avoid war and instead, instills peace.

Examples of Animal Altruism

Vampire bats will regurgitate and feed blood that they have collected from their prey to a
hungry conspecific.

Ground squirrels will warn others of the presence of a predator, even though making such
a call may draw the attention of the predator to itself

Three Characteristics of Altruistic Behavior

1. Perceiving the need of another person

2. Being motivated by empathy to help the other person
3. Addressing the need by taking action without expecting a reward or recognition in
return

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1. Perceiving the Needs of another Person

Altruistic behavior begins with a heightened awareness of the feelings and circumstances of
others. This sensitivity allows individuals to recognize when someone is struggling or in need.
Often, this perception requires keen observation. People may notice verbal cues (like someone
expressing distress) or non-verbal cues (such as body language or facial expressions).

The ability to perceive needs can be influenced by the social context, cultural norms, and
personal experiences. Some individuals may be more attuned to certain situations based on their
background. Engaging with diverse groups and fostering emotional intelligence can enhance
one‟s ability to perceive others' needs.

2. Being Motivated by Empathy to Help the Other Person

Empathy involves not only understanding another person‟s feelings but also sharing in their
emotional experience. This emotional connection often drives altruistic actions. The motivation
to help can stem from a genuine desire to alleviate another's suffering or from a sense of moral
obligation. It often transcends self-interest.

Individuals may respond to perceived needs with actions that reflect their emotional
understanding, such as offering support, comfort, or practical help. Engaging in empathetic
behavior can also lead to a sense of fulfillment or satisfaction, further reinforcing the cycle of
altruism.

3. Addressing the Need by Taking Action without Expecting a Reward or Recognition in

Return

A hallmark of altruistic behavior is the intention behind the action. Altruists often act without
any expectation of reward, recognition, or reciprocity.

This behavior is driven by intrinsic values, such as compassion and a sense of social
responsibility, rather than external incentives. Individuals find motivation in the act itself rather
than in potential benefits. Altruistic actions can have a ripple effect, fostering a culture of
generosity and support within communities.

When people help others without expectation, it can encourage a similar response from those
who witness or experience such acts. While altruists do not seek rewards, studies suggest that
helping others can enhance personal well-being and happiness, creating a positive feedback loop.

Altruistic behavior is characterized by the perception of others' needs, an empathetic motivation

to assist, and selfless action that seeks no reward. Understanding these characteristics helps to
foster a more compassionate and supportive society.

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 Theories of Altruism
Psychologists believe there are two types of altruism:

1. Biological altruism (with its roots in evolutionary psychology)

2. Psychological altruism (based more on cognitive psychology)

1. Biological Altruism

It based on Instinct and Genes. Evolutionary Psychology is the attempt to explain social behavior
in terms of genetic factors that evolved over time, according to the principles of natural selection.
Darwin recognized that altruistic behavior posed a problem for his theory: if an organism acts
altruistically, it may decrease its own reproductive fitness.

 Kin Selection Theory

Kin selection theory predicts that the extent of altruism depends on genetic relatedness. By
helping relatives to reproduce (even at the cost to your own reproductive success) then your
shared genes can spread. Assisting a close relative thereby increases one‟s „Inclusive Fitness‟.
Using mathematical modelling, Hamilton showed that an altruistic gene can spread through the
population if it causes an individual to help a relative, whenever the cost to the individual is
offset by the reproductive benefit gained by the receiver.

„Hamilton‟s Rule‟ = r B>c

Where r=coefficient of relatedness, B = benefit to the recipient, c = cost to the giver.

Example: In a house fire, who would you save first, your brother/sister or your neighbor?

Many mammal species exhibit altruistic behaviors toward their young or siblings, such as
protecting them from predators or sharing food.

Kin Selection in Humans

Food sharing is more common amongst close relatives. Political alliances between kin are more
stable than those formed between distantly related or unrelated individuals and involve less
preconditions. The passing on of wealth to lineal descendants (excluding spouses) is far more
common than giving to less closely related or unrelated individuals. Close relatives are
preferentially sought out in times of need and such help is less likely to be reciprocal. Relatives
typically receive more expensive presents. One reason we help people is that we assume it will
make them more likely to help us in the future. This is so strong it may have become genetically
based.

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  Reciprocal Altruism Theory

It is proposed by Trivers (1971). Natural Selection may create psychological mechanisms

designed to deliver benefits even to non-relatives, provided that such actions lead to reciprocal
beneficial actions in the future.

Reciprocal altruism theory posits that individuals may act altruistically toward others with the
expectation that those acts will be reciprocated in the future. This form of cooperation enhances
survival and reproductive success by creating mutually beneficial relationships.

This is not necessarily limited to the same species e.g. cleaner fish. If the benefit received is
larger than the cost incurred, then individuals who engage in such behaviour will out-reproduce
those who do not. E.g., in vampire bats, an individual will share food with a conspecific (whether
related or not) if the other has shared food with that individual in the past. In human societies,
reciprocal altruism manifests in various ways, such as sharing food, providing assistance, and
forming alliances. Social norms and cultural practices often encourage these behaviors.

a) Conditions under Which Reciprocation Flourishes

Individuals must associate for long-enough periods of time to develop reciprocal interactions.
The likelihood of one individual performing some social exchange with another should be
predicted on the basis of their past associations. Individuals need to be able to remember past
interactions and recognize those who have helped them. Social structures that facilitate repeated
interactions, such as small groups, increase the chances of reciprocal altruism developing. The
roles of giver and receiver should reverse at least once. The short-term benefits to the recipient
are greater than the costs to the donor. Givers should be able to recognise and expel cheaters
from the system. Reciprocal altruism helps explain how cooperation can evolve among non-
relatives. It suggests that altruistic behaviors can be adaptive when they lead to long-term
benefits.

b) Reciprocal Altruism: Prisoner’s Dilemma

The "Prisoner‟s Dilemma," illustrates how cooperation can emerge in competitive situations.
For example:

Criminals A and B commit a crime together. They are caught by the police and are interviewed
separately. They both know that without the testimony of the other, there is not enough evidence
to imprison them for more than a year. However, they also know that if they collaborate with the
police and blame the other one, the other would go to prison for 20 years, but they would go free.

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 Prisoner’s Dilemma

2. Psychological Altruism

Where biological explanations of altruism can be seen in many animals, psychological

explanations of altruism are witnessed only in higher-level mammals. While biological
explanations of altruism occur almost automatically, psychological explanations of altruism arise
as a result of cognition. That is, this type of altruism relies on the „helper‟ understanding the
situation. This kind of altruism is not innate.

 Negative-state relief model

When encountering a homeless person asking for money, we can either give them some money
or walk away. Schaller and Cialdini (1988) proposed the negative-state relief model. Pro-social
behavior results from egoism rather than altruism. We help others in order to relieve the stress
we feel when encountering a bad situation. This model also explains why people walk away.
Walking away also alleviates distress.

 Empathy-altruism model

Batson disagrees with the notion that we only help to relieve negative feelings. Batson et al
(1981) suggests that people experience two kinds of emotion when they see suffering. According
to Batson, if you feel empathy towards a person, you will help, regardless of what you may gain
from it. Relieving suffering becomes the most important thing. If a person feels no empathy, then
they would consider the costs and benefits before making the decision to help. The empathy-
altruism hypothesis has been tested empirically many times, in order to distinguish it from egoist
hypotheses (e.g. Schaller and Cialdini‟s „negative-state relief‟ model). It is, however, very
difficult to determine from observed behavior, whether someone is acting out of empathy or to
relieve distress.

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 Empathy- altruism Model
Process of Helping

Has something happened?

Is it an emergency?

Is this something for which I should take personal responsibility?

What form of assistance should I give?

I’ll help.

Factors that Influence Helping

The factors that influence helping behavior:

a) Number of Bystanders

 Influence on Noticing an Emergency:

In a large crowd, individuals may be less likely to notice an emergency. This

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 phenomenon, known as "in-attentional blindness," occurs because people often assume
that others are paying attention or that someone else will take action.
 Interpreting an Emergency:

The presence of many bystanders can lead to ambiguity in interpreting situations. When
people see others not reacting to an emergency, they may conclude that the situation is
not serious, leading to collective inaction. This is often called "pluralistic ignorance,"
where individuals rely on the reactions of others to determine how to respond.
 Assuming Responsibility:

With many people around, responsibility gets diffused. Each bystander may feel less
personal accountability, thinking, “Someone else will help.” This diffusion of
responsibility can lead to inaction during critical moments.

Reducing the Bystander Effect:

 Clear Emergencies vs. Ambiguous Situations: When an emergency is clear-cut (e.g.,

someone collapses), bystanders are more likely to help. Ambiguous situations make it
harder for individuals to interpret the need for help, decreasing the likelihood of
intervention.
 Cohesive Groups vs. Strangers: People are more likely to help if they are in a cohesive
group (e.g., friends or colleagues) rather than with strangers. Familiarity and social bonds
can increase the sense of responsibility and the likelihood of helping.

b) Presence of Pro-social Models

The influence of pro-social models is powerful in shaping behavior. Observing someone

engage in helping behavior can trigger a similar response in others. For example, when
individuals see someone donating to a charity, such as the Salvation Army, they may feel
inspired to contribute themselves. This effect demonstrates how social norms and
behaviors can spread through observation, reinforcing the idea that helping is valued and
encouraged in society.

c) Time Pressure
 Impact of Time Pressure on Helping Behavior:

When individuals are in a hurry, their capacity to notice emergencies diminishes

significantly. They may overlook cues that signal someone in need. Time pressure can
also affect how they interpret situations; feeling rushed can lead to quick judgments that
may dismiss the need for help.
 Less Likelihood of Helping:

Research shows that individuals who are hurried are less likely to stop and assist others.
They prioritize their immediate goals over potential emergencies, leading to reduced

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 helping behaviors. This highlights the importance of situational context in influencing
altruism.

d) Emotions
 Guilt:

Guilt can serve as a strong motivator for helping behavior. Studies have shown that
individuals who feel guilty about a wrongdoing are more likely to offer assistance to
others as a means of alleviating their guilt. For example, participants who lied in a study
volunteered significantly more time to help afterward than those who did not lie. Public
acknowledgment of guilt can further increase the urge to help.

 Negative Mood:

For adults, experiencing a negative mood can actually increase the likelihood of helping
behavior. Adults often learn that helping others can lead to a sense of satisfaction or relief
from their own distress. However, feelings like anger and grief may counteract this
tendency, leading to reduced helping.
 Positive Mood:

Positive emotions significantly enhance helping behavior. For instance, individuals who
feel happy or relieved are more inclined to assist others. Research, such as the parking
ticket study, shows that a shift from fear to relief can lead to increased pro-social actions.

e) Personality Traits
 Complex Nature of Altruism:

No single personality trait universally predicts altruistic behavior; rather, a network of

traits is involved. Traits like emotionality, empathy, and self-efficacy are linked to a
higher likelihood of helping.

 High Self-Monitors:

Individuals who are high in self-monitoring may help others primarily when they believe
such actions will yield social rewards. This interplay between personality traits and
situational context affects their willingness to assist.

 Gender Differences:
Research indicates that men are often more likely to help in dangerous situations, while
women may be more inclined to help in safer, caregiving contexts. These trends can
reflect social norms and expectations around gender roles in helping behavior.

These factors illustrate the multifaceted nature of altruism and how both situational and
individual differences can influence the likelihood of helping others.

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 How do we teach altruism?

Teaching altruism involves fostering attitudes and behaviors that promote helping others. Here
are detailed notes on the methods you've mentioned:

1. Teach Moral Inclusion

a) Concept of Moral Inclusion:

Moral inclusion is the idea of expanding the circle of those we consider worthy of moral
concern and assistance. It encourages individuals to view others, regardless of their
background or differences, as part of their moral community.

b) Strategies to Promote Moral Inclusion:

 Diverse Interactions: Encourage children and individuals to engage with people

from different cultures, backgrounds, and experiences. This can foster empathy and a
broader understanding of humanity.
 Education on Inequality and Injustice: Teaching about social issues, such as
poverty, discrimination, and environmental challenges, can help individuals see the
broader implications of their actions and develop a sense of responsibility toward
those outside their immediate social circles.
 Empathy Development: Activities like storytelling or role-playing can help
individuals understand the feelings and perspectives of others, making it easier to
extend help to a wider group.

2. Model Altruism

a) Importance of Role Models:

People often learn through observation, so demonstrating altruistic behavior can inspire
others to act similarly. This can be particularly effective in childhood development.

b) Effective Modeling Techniques:

 Visible Acts of Kindness: Parents, teachers, and community leaders should actively
engage in altruistic behaviors, such as volunteering, helping neighbors, or donating to
charity. These visible actions serve as powerful examples.
 Media Influence: Television shows, movies, and literature that portray characters
engaging in altruistic acts can have a positive impact. Programs that highlight
community service, kindness, and cooperation can encourage viewers to emulate
those behaviors.
 Discussion and Reflection: After witnessing acts of kindness, discussing the
motivations and impacts of those actions can reinforce the value of altruism and
inspire individuals to think about how they can contribute positively.

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3. Attributing Behavior to Altruistic Motives

a) Understanding Motivations:

Helping behavior can be influenced by how we interpret the motives behind actions. If
we frame behaviors as genuinely altruistic, it can encourage others to adopt similar
behaviors.
b) Avoiding the Over justification Effect:

The over justification effect occurs when external rewards diminish intrinsic motivation.
To teach altruism effectively, it‟s essential to avoid excessive rewards or coercion for
helping behaviors.

c) Strategies to Encourage Genuine Altruism:

 Intrinsic Motivation: Emphasize the personal satisfaction and positive feelings that
come from helping others rather than focusing solely on rewards or recognition. This
can help foster a genuine desire to assist others.
 Balanced Reinforcement: While some positive reinforcement can be beneficial, it‟s
important not to make rewards the primary reason for helping. Instead, praise the act
of kindness itself and its impact on others.
 Encourage Reflection: Prompt individuals to reflect on their feelings and
motivations when they help others. This can reinforce the internal benefits of altruism
and help them understand their own altruistic motives.

By teaching moral inclusion, modeling altruism, and carefully framing motivations for helping,
we can cultivate a culture of altruism that encourages individuals to act compassionately toward
others. These strategies can help build a more empathetic and connected society.

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