Faculty of Civil and Water Resource

Engineering

Course: Irrigation Engineering I (WREn3172)

Target Group:
3rd year Water Resources Engineering
(Regular Program)By: Eneyew
T.eneyewtamiru@gmail.com
1. Introduction
1.1 Definition and scope of irrigation
• Definition: Irrigation is the science of artificial application of water to the
land, in accordance with the crop requirements throughout the crop period
for full nourishment of the crops.
• It is the Engineering of controlling and harnessing the various natural
sources of water, by construction of dams & reservoirs, canals & head
works and finally distributing the water to agricultural fields.
• Water is normally supplied to the plants by nature through the rainfall.
However, it may be either insufficient, or ill-timed.
• To have maximum yield it is essential to supply the optimum quantity of
water with the schedule..
- inadequate rainfall factors that
- uneven distribution of Rainfall necessitate
- increasing the yield of the crops irrigation
- growing a number of crops
- insuring against drought.
- growing perennial crops.
Scope of Irrigation Engineering
• Application of water to the land for raising crops. It includes all aspects and
problems extending from the watershed to the agricultural fields.
• It deals with

Hydrology, river engineering, design and construction of

dams, weirs, canals and various other hydraulic and
irrigation structures.

It also deals with surface and sub surface drainage

system, soil reclamation, water-soil-crop relationships.
Other allied sciences such as flood control, Ground water
development, hydropower, and inland navigation are also
studied in IRRIGATION ENGINEERING.

Various aspects of Irrigation Engineering is:

1. Water resources and hydrology aspect :-Study the hydrology of the
region. This includes locate various water sources meteorology,
precipitation, stream flow, floods, river engineering, reservoirs flood
control and ground water hydrology.
The following information are required while designing various
irrigation structures.
 The quantity of water that will be available at a reservoir site for
storage.
 Maximum discharge at a river site.
 Reservoir capacity that ensures adequate Quantity of water for
various purposes.
 Quantity of ground water which can be economically exploited.
2. Engineering Aspect :-- involves the development of a source of water
for irrigation and construction of various irrigation structures.
– Dams and water power Engineering
– Diversion and distribution structures
– Minor irrigation schemes (well, Tank / Pond, inundation
Irrigation).
– Ground water development.
3. Agricultural aspect – Involves irrigation practice and the study of
agricultural characteristics of the land and Crops.
4. Management Aspect- deals with successful implementation and
efficient management of engineering aspects and agricultural works.
 1.2 Benefits and ill- effects of irrigation
There are various direct and indirect advantages of irrigation.
 Increase in food production: increasing crop yields through controlled and
timely supply of water to the crop.
 Optimum benefits: Optimum utilization implies obtaining maximum crop
yield with any amount of water.
 Elimination of mixed cropping Mixed cropping is generally not acceptable,
because different crops require different types of field preparations and
different types of manures, amount of water etc.
 General prosperity: A Revenue return is sometimes quite high and helps in
all round development of the country.
• Generation of hydroelectric power: primarily objects designed for
irrigation alone but cheaper power generation
• Domestic water supply:- irrigation helps in augmenting the town water
supply where water is available with great difficulty. It also provides water
for swimming ,bathing, cattle drinking etc.
• Facilities of communication: Irrigation channels are generally provided
with embankments and inspection roads. These inspection paths provide a
good road way to the villagers for walking, cycling or even motoring.
• In land navigation
Ill-effects of irrigation
It is occur when the scheme is not properly designed, implemented and
application management.
Some of the common ill-effects are
 Water logging: when cultivators apply more water than actually required by
the crops, excess water percolates in to the ground and raises the water table.
This inhibited respiration, avoid air circulation and create toxic environment
to plant.
 Long term application of pesticides under large scale irrigation system
might have a negative influence on soil microbial activities, on the quality of
surface and sub surface water resources due to pollution application fertilizer
that contains nitrates.
 Irrigation may result in colder and damper climate causing outbreak of
disease like malaria.
 Irrigation is complex and expensive in itself. Some times cheaper water is
to be provided at the cost of the government and revenue returns are low.
1.3 Irrigation development in Ethiopia-Reading Assigmnt-1(Slide-7 to-Slide-9)
 Ethiopia is the “water tower” of North Eastern Africa. The country
is endowed with water resources that could easily be tapped and used for
irrigation.
 Ironically this country is already suffering from

food shortage and chronic drought

 In Ethiopia, rain fed agriculture contributes the largest share of the total
production. However, over the past few decades, irrigated agriculture has
become more important.
 Prior to the mid-1980s, irrigation in Ethiopia was concentrated on the
production of commercial crops, principally cotton and sugarcane on large
state farms.
 By 1980 it was estimated that 85,000 ha. Mainly in the Awash valley, had
been developed under this form of production. In addition some 65,000 ha
of traditional irrigation was estimated to exist.
 During this period government involvement in irrigation concentrated on
the state farms and was channeled through various agencies.
Historical Back Ground of Authority
• In 1956 water resource development (WRD) was established within Ministry
of public works, with responsibility for undertaking river basin development
studies and such a study was completed for the Blue Nile basin.
• However irrigation development remained concentrated in the Awash valley
and in 1962 Awash valley Authority (AVA) was established.
• In 1971 National Water Resources Commission (NWRC) was established.
• In 1977 Valleys agricultural development authority (VADA) was created to
extend the development of large scale irrigated agriculture beyond the Awash
valley and AVA become part of VADA.
• In 1981 NWRC strengthened to absorb functions of VADA. It comprised four
authorities including water resource development authority (WRDA), which
became responsible for the study, design, and implementation of water
resource development projects including large scale irrigation.
• The Water Sector Development programme of MoWR (2002) organizes
irrigation schemes in Ethiopia under four different ways with sizes ranging
from 50 to 85,000 ha.

Traditional small scale schemes

Modern communal schemes
Modern private schemes
Public Schemes
1. Traditional small scale schemes: These includes up to 100 ha in area, built
and operated by farmers in local communities. Traditionally, farmers have built
small scale schemes on their own initiative with government technical and
material support. Manage by Water users’ associations.
2. Modern communal schemes: schemes up to 200 ha, built by government
agencies with farmer participation.
3. Modern private schemes: up to 2000 ha, owned and operated by private
investors individually, in partnership, or as corporations. Currently 18 modern
private irrigation projects are operating in some form over a total area of 6000
ha in Oromiya, SNNPR, and Affar regions.
4. Public Schemes of over 3,000 ha, owned and operated by public enterprises
as state farms. Gode West, Omo Ratti and Alwero- Abobo began late in the
1980s with the exception of Fincha sugare estate have been suspended.
Oromiya and Affar account nearly 87% of all irrigation schemes and about
73% of this is located in Awash valley. The SNNPR and Somali regions
contain 9.9 and 3.3 percent respectively, WSDP (2003).
Ethiopia has plenty surface and groundwater potential

• Considerable parts of
Ethiopia are rainfall
scarce. Not
necessarily
economically scarce if
water resources
management &
infrastructure
improves
• 12 river basins; 123
billion m3 SW and 36-
40 billion m3 GW

Source; MoWIE
 Ethiopia has high irrigation potential, yet we benefited less

158,776 ha
• Irrigation
83,368 ha
potential of
#
^
Gonder Ethiopia is
Debre Tabor
# #
#
^
Irr igation Potentials
estimated to be
#
# ^ Bahr Dar MER EB GASH
#
#
# #
# #
# # #
# #
# #
#
# # ##
## # # #
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Enjebara ^ #
##
# ###
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TEKEZE
# #DENAKIL
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^ Asosa # #
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Debre# Markos
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^

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ABBAY
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#####
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AYISHA
5.7 million
134,121 ha
# #
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Debre
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Birhan # ## #
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Gimbi

hectares (master
#
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# ^ ^ Am bo # # # # # # # ## ##
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# #
^ #### # # # ###
Nekem te # # ## #
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#
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B A R O AKOBO #
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815,581 ha # #
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O G AD EN

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G#ENALE D#AW##A
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WABI SH EBELE
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plan + IWMI)
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• Only ~5% of
# #
0 150 300 600
## Kilo meters
# #

the potential is
being used
237,905 ha
1,019,523 ha
67,928 ha 139,300 ha 1,074,720 ha

Source; MoWIE
Irrigation potential:
• In 1990, the potential for medium and large scale irrigation projects was identified as 3.3 Mha. According to India
consultancy study.
• The irrigation potential of the12 major river basins is given in the Table below.

Rivers Basin area Mean annual Ground water 1 2

(Km)2 Vol.x109m3 potentialx109 potential gross Net area
m3 irrigable Under
area(ha) irrigation(ha)
Awash 112696 4.60 0.14 205,400 69900
Abay() 204000 52.62 1.80 1,001,550 21010
Baro-Akobo 75912 11.81 0.13 600,000 350
Rift valley 52739 56.3 0.10 139,300 12270
lakes
Omo-Gibe 79000 17.96 0.10 86,520 27310
Genale-dawa 17104 5.88 0.03 423,300 80
Wabi-Shebelle 202697 3.16 0.04 204,000 20290
Tekeze 865000 8.20 0.02 189,500 1800
Oaden 72121 0.86 - - -
Denakil 62882 0.86 - 3000 -
Aysha 2223 0.22 - - -
Mereb-Gash 5700 0.65 0.05 67560 8000
Total 1127312 112.45 2.59 2,920,130 161,010=(5.5%)
– With this respect, Ethiopia has a total potentially irrigable area
of about 3,637,000 ha. which is 27.55% of the total cultivable area.
– For small scale irrigation 165,000-400,000 ha.
– For medium and large scale irrigation 3,300,000 ha
 Government budget for irrigation sector
Development increase year to year
30

25
Budget (Billions of Birr)

20

15

10

0
1996 2001 2006 2011 2016

Time (Years), EC Source; MoWIE

 Functions of Irrigation water
 It adds water to the soil, supply the moisture essential for plant
growth.
 It acts as a solvent for the nutrients. Water forms the solution of the
nutrients, and this solution is absorbed by the roots. Thus, water acts
as a nutrient carrier.
 The irrigation water supplies moisture which is essential for the life
of bacteria beneficial to the plant growth.
 Irrigation water supplies the moisture which is essential for the
chemical action within the plant, leading to its growth.
 Water cools the soil and the atmosphere and thus makes more
favorable environment for healthy plant growth.
 Irrigation water, with controlled supplies, washes out or dilutes salts in
the soil.
 It reduces the hazard of soil piping.
 It softens tillage pans.
 Standards of irrigation water
 The quality of irrigation water is very much influenced by the contents of the
soil, which is to be irrigated.
 Particular water may be harmful for irrigation on a particular soil, but the
same water may be tolerable or even useful on some other soil.
 Irrigation water may be said to be unsatisfactory for its intended use if it
contains:-

 Chemicals toxic to plants or the persons using plant as food.

 Chemicals that react with the soil to produce unsatisfactory moisture
characteristics
 Bacteria injurious to persons or animals eating plants irrigated with water.

 It is reported that an estimated 11 million ha (Mha) land in Ethiopia

is exposed to salinity and sodicity. (Tadelle, 1993).
There are two main causes of salinity:-
1. Salinity caused by the supply of irrigation water and
2. Salinity caused by the upward movement of water
and salts, related to high water tables and lack of
drainage.
• To remove the salts from the soil by providing
extra water, which dissolves the salts and
percolates to the saturated zone where it is
removed by drainage. The process is called
leaching.
• The amount of water required to wash salt from
soils is called Leaching Requirement.
 Important characteristics of Irrigation
Water Quality
a) Sediment
b) Total concentration of soluble salts
c) Proportion of sodium ions to other cations:
d) pH
e) Potentially toxic elements
Sediment
• Its effect depends upon the type of irrigated
land
• Sediment water creates troubles in irrigation
canals as it increases their siltation and
maintenance costs.
• Ground water or surface water from reservoirs,
etc does not have sufficient sediment to cause
any serious problems in irrigation.
Total concentration of soluble salts
• Salts, when present in excessive quantities, reduce osmotic
activities of the plants and may prevent adequate aeration causing
injuries to plant growth.
• The salinity concentration of the soil solution (Cs) after the
consumptive use (Cu) has been extracted from the soil is given by:
Cs
where Q = quantity of water applied
Cu = is consumptive use of water i.e. the total amount of water
used up by the plant for its growth.
Peff = useful rainfall
Cu - Peff = used up irrigation water
C = concentration of salt in irrigation water
C*Q = the total salt applied to the soil with Q amount of water.
• Salt concentration is measured by determining electrical conductivity
(EC).
 Proportion of sodium ions to other cations:
• The proportion of sodium ions present in the soil is generally
measured by a factor called sodium-absorption ratio (SAR)
and represents the sodium hazards of water. SAR is defined as:

• If its percentage increases it has an influence on the aggregation of

soil grains i.e. it breaks down. The soil becomes less permeable and of
poorer tilth. It starts crusting when dry and its pH increases towards
that of an alkaline soil.
• SAR value can be reduced by adding gypsum (CaSo4).
 pH

• The pH value of a soil or natural water is a measure of

its alkalinity or acidity. More accurately stated , the pH
value is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration
in water.
• pH -log(H+
•The normal range is 6.5 to 8.4.
• Mathematically this is the logarithm to the base 10 of
the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration of the
pure water.
Potentially toxic elements:
• Elements like Boron, Aresenic, cadmium, lead, zink,
Selenium, etc are toxic to plants.
“Plants most often suffer toxicities from B, Cu, Ni,
and Zn, while animals are sensitive to As, Be, Cd, Cr,
Cu, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, whereas Cd, Hg, and Pb have the
greatest potential to affect human health (Logan and
Traina, 1993).”
• Concentration of Boron exceeding 0.3 PPM toxic
to certain plants. >0.5 PPM dangerous to nuts,
citrus fruits.
• Beets, asparagus are quite tolerant.
Guidelines for the interpretation of water quality for irrigation water (FAO,
1976)
 Feasibility Studies of Irrigation Projects

• Basically, the development of water resources for

irrigation requires the conception, planning, design,
construction, and operation of various facilities to
utilize and control water and to maintain water
quality.
• Investigations of the development of irrigation
projects need multi- disciplinary approach. Specialists
of different disciplines , such as, Soil and water
specialist, Engineers (Irrigation and civil),
Agronomist, Geologist, and Socio-economist
required.
• Based on the scope of the irrigation project, irrigation
projects can be classified as:

• Note: In Ethiopia, Small scale irrigations are those

which have command areas <200 ha, medium scale
200-3000 ha. And large scale >3000 ha.
The common procedures adopted in the development of
an irrigation project are:
1. Sites are located on the toposheet.
2. The marked sites are inspected (reconnaissance) to
decide their feasibility.
3. The feasibility investigations are carried out for
one or more of the possible alternatives and estimates
based approximate details are prepared.
4. Detailed investigations are then taken up and
technical sanctions are granted.
5. After the technical sanction, agency of execution
(i.e., contractor) is fixed and construction started.
 The data to be collected at the feasibility
study stage are
1. Physical data : Location, size, physiography (description
of land form which includes only physical aspects),
climate, etc.
2. Hydrological data: Precipitation, Evaporation,
transpiration, stream flow, sediment, water quality etc.
3. Agricultural data: Land classification, crop water
requirements, types of crops etc.
4. Geological data: Rock & Soil types, ground water,
minerals, erosion, etc.
5. Cartographic data: Topographic & other maps of the
area.
6. Ecological data : Types of vegetation, fish & wild life.
 Cont..
7. Demographic data: Population statistics, data of
people etc.
8. Economic data: Means of transportation, market, land
taxes, etc.
9. Legal data: Water rights, land ownership administrative
pattern, etc.
10. Data in existing project: Types of Location of various
projects.
11. Data on public opinion: Opinions of different section
of the society.
12. Flood control data : Records of past flood, extent of
damage caused, drainage requirements.
 Major irrigation methods

Irrigation Methods

Surface Irrigation Sub surface irrigation Pressurized irrigation

Border Natural Sprinkler

Check basin Artificial Drip/Trickle

Furrow
Surface Irrigation -Furrow
SPRINKLER IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
Modern lateral move sprinkler irrigation
Center pivot irrigation
Drip Irrigation
Drip Irrigation
 Chapter -2
Soil-Water-Plant Relationships
• At the end of this session, you will identify :-

 The properties of soil that affect the

movement, retention and use of water
 Soil-water relation
 Soil-plant relation
 Plant-water relation
1 Introduction

• Soils are the storehouse of water, nutrients and air

which are necessary for plant growth.

• Plants need water – soil stores this water-

atmosphere provides some amount of energy for the
water to be withdrawn by plants.

• The water stored in the soil pore constitutes

the soil water.
 Plants absorb water mainly through their roots and use only
1.0 to 1.5% of the volume of water absorbed for
 building their vegetative structures,
 performing various physiological, and biochemical activities.

• Then where does the rest 98.5 % - 99% of water absorbed

goes …???

• Study of the process of water transport in soil, into plants and

from soil and plants to the atmosphere are the basics of
irrigation practice.
• Important Question while thinking of Irrigation is
 when to irrigate? (early in the morning or late in the
afternoon) ,
 how long we irrigate?
how often irrigation is applied? and
 how much to irrigate ?
• To answer thus, the knowledge of soil –water –atmosphere
relationship required.

• Both excess and deficit soil water affects plant growth and
hence result in yield reduction.

• Soil physical characteristics:- moisture retention, storage and

transport, availability to plants as well as mechanisms of
water absorption, conduction and transpiration by plants.
 Soil –water relationship
 Physical properties of soils
Soil Texture:
Soil Structure:
Bulk Density:
Porosity:
 Soil is the natural material that covers the land surface of the
earth.
 Soils have profiles.

 They are formed by a combination of natural processes under

the interrelated influences of climate, vegetation, break
,hydrology, parent material and time.

 Soil is a three-phase system constituting solid, liquid and

gases.
 The minerals and organic matters in soil together constitute the
solid phase.
Three phase diagram of a soil profile

Water film

Air space

Soil particles

Figure 2.1: Diagram showing cross section of soil

Soil Texture
 Soil texture refers to the relative size of soil
particles in a given soil (sand, silt and clay ).
 A typical silt loam soil contains about 50% soil solids,
30% water and 20% air.
 Soil separates refer to the different particle sizes
that compose soil.
Size limits of soil separates
Soil separates Particle diameter (mm)
USAD ISSS
Very coarse sand 2.0 - 1.0 -
Coarse sand 1.0 - 0.5 2.0 - 0.2
Medium sand 0.50 - 0.25 -
Fine sand 0.25 - 0.10 0.20 - 0.02
Very fine sand 0.10 - 0.05 -
Silt 0.05 - 0.002 0.02 - 0.002
Clay < 0.002 < 0.002
 Fine sand

Moisture Status: 25-50% 50-75% 75-100%

Loam soils (sandy clay loam , loam , silt loam)

 Clay soils

Moisture Status: 25-50% 50-75% 75-100%

How do we determine soil texture and soil type?

 Determining of Soil Texture and Soil Type
 The relative proportion of soil separates is determined by
mechanical analysis-Sieve Analysis. Triangular classification is
then utilized to differentiate the soil texture.

 The relative proportions of soil separates (sand, silt, and clay) are
determined through mechanical analysis, specifically using sieve
analysis.
 Once the proportions are known, a soil texture triangle is used to classify
the soil type.

Fig. 2.2: The relative sizes of three soil samples

 USDA Triangular soil Textural
classification Chart
3%

• Sandy soil (72%)

• Clay soil (25%)
• Loamy soil (3%)

25%

ANSWER
DA textural triangle 72% Sandy Clay Loam
 USDA Triangular soil Textural
classification Chart

• Sandy soil =15%

• Clay soil =32%
• Loamy soil

Soil Textural Name ??

Fig. 2.3: USDA textural triangle

 USDA Triangular soil Textural
classification Chart

• Sandy soil =15%

• Clay soil =32%
• Loamy soil

Soil Textural Name ??

Ans: Silt Clay Loam
Why we need to know the soil texture ?

 To know some of physical

properties of soil
 To determine irrigation practices
Fig. 2.3: USDA textural triangle
 Soil Structure

 Definition: Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles

(sand, silt, and clay) and the spaces (pores) between them. It influences
how soil interacts with water, air, and organisms.
 Arrangement and organization of soil particles in the soil and the
tendency of individual soil particles to bind together into aggregates.

 The arrangements of soil aggregates give soil its structure.

 Grouping of particles into structural units occur in all soils.

 However, the strength of the bonds, the size and the shape of the
structural units and the proportion of the soil particles involved in the units
differ considerably among soils.
Fig. Types of Soil Structure
Soil Structure development is influenced by:
• Amount and type of clay, exchangeable ions on the clay.
• Amount and type of organic matter.
• Presence of iron and aluminum oxides (cementing agents.
• Binding between organic and inorganic compounds
(aluminum oxides, cations, clays).
• Vegetation: produces OM, roots act as holding soil
together, and protects soil surface.
• The overall quality of the soil structure may be evaluated in
terms of its: Porosity, Aggregation, Cohesiveness,
Permeability for water or air.
• it has a pronounced effect on soil properties such as:
Erodibility,
Porosity,
Hydraulic conductivity,
Infiltration, and
Water holding capacity.
Volume and mass relationships
Volume Mass
Relations Relations

Vt =Vs +Vw +Va

M t =M s + M w +M a

Fig. 2.4: Schematic diagram of the soil as a three-phase

system
 Bulk density [pb ]

 Refers to the mass of a substance divided by its volume, including

the voids between particles.
 It describe how much mass is contained in a given volume of
material.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
 Bulk Density= ​
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Ms Ms
pb = =
Vt (Vs +Va +Vw )
 How does bulk density influence the rates of infiltration,
percolation, and water holding capacity in soil?
 Answer

As bulk density increases, infiltration and percolation rates generally

decrease, while water holding capacity may also be negatively impacted.
Particle density[ ps ]
is defined as the mass of solid particles in a given volume of
a substance, excluding the spaces between those particles.
It is calculated as the mass of the solid particles divided by
the volume they occupy.
Ms
ps =
Vs

Where:-
M= is the mass of solid particles
V = volume of solid particle.
 So, the particle density of any soil is constant and does not
vary with the amount of space between the particles. As
ignoring any voids or spaces between them
 Total pore space and porosity (E)
Total pore space :-the volume of voids or spaces within a soil that
can be filled with air or water.
 It is the difference between the total volume of the soil and the volume
of solid particles.
 It is the volume of soil occupied by air and water or other fluids.
 Volume of voids in the soil.
Porosity (E):- is a measure of the total pore space expressed as a
percentage of the total volume of the soil.
 It indicates how much of the soil's volume is made up of pores. Porosity
Vf Va  Vw  Vt  Vs  Vs 
E    1  
Vt Vt Vt  Vt 
  
E  1  b  Proof it?
 s 
How different aspects of soil texture impact porosity?
Measurement of soil water:-
Refers to the process of determining the amount of water
present in soil.
This is important for understanding soil moisture levels.

Measurement Methods of Soil Water

1. Gravimetric Method
2. Neutron –Scattering
3. Capacitance Method
4. TDR (Time Domain Reflectometer
Soil Water Content
 Soil water content is expressed on mass basis or volume
basis.
 It is measured using gravimetric, neutron scattering,
capacitance method, time domain reflectometer.
1. Gravimetric method (Soil water content on mass or volume basis)
 weighing a soil sample before and after drying it in an oven.
The difference in weight indicates the amount of water present in
the soil.
Mass basis (as a percentage of the weight of the water relative to the weight
of the dry soil)
W2  W3
w 100
W3  W1
W1 = weight of empty aluminium box, gm
W2 = weight of box + moist soil sample, gm
W3 = weight of box + dried soil sample, gm
w=Gravimetric Moisture Content
b
V
 w 
Vw v  w
Volume basis: Vt Vs  V f  w
• The gravimetric method is still the most widely
used technique to determine the soil water content
and is often taken as a standard for the calibration
of other methods
• A disadvantage is that it is laborious, because
samples in duplicate or in triplicate are required to
compensate for errors and variability.

 What is the importance of knowing soil moisture?

 EXERCISE 2.1

Why is gravimetric moisture content (w) multiplied by

bulk density(ρb) to convert it to volumetric moisture
content (θ)?

pb
θv = w ???
pw
 Types of soil water
Definition:- Soil water can be categorized based on its availability
to plants and its movement within the soil.

1. Gravitational water
Definition:-
Water that moves downward through the soil due to gravity.
Characteristics:-

 This water fills the larger pores in the soil and drains away
quickly, usually after rainfall or irrigation.

 It is not available to plants as it moves out of the root zone.

 When sufficient water is added to soil, water gradually fills the
pore system expelling air completely from soil.
 The water tension at this stage is 0.33 atm. or less.
2. Capillary Water
Definition:
Water held in the soil's micropores due to surface tension.
Characteristics:
 This water is available to plants and is retained in the soil after
gravitational water has drained.
 It provides moisture to plants through their roots.
 With increasing supply of water, the water film held around soil particles
thickens.
 Water enters the pores until the soil-water tension equal to the gravity
force.
 This soil water tension is about 0.10 – 0.33atm.
 Capillary water in fine soils > Capillary water in course soils.
 Optimum growth of plant takes place when the soil water is maintained at
near field capacity.
 3. Hygroscopic water
Definition:-

 Water that forms a thin film around soil particles due to

adhesion.
Characteristics:-

This water is tightly bound to soil particles and is not available

to plants.
Occurs as a very thin film over the surface of soil particles.
hold on firmly at a tension of 31 atmospheres.
 Soil moisture constants
Definition: Soil moisture constants are specific moisture levels in soil that
indicate how much water is available for plants.
• Saturation Capacity:-
When all micro and macro pore spaces are filled with water (there is no
air in the soil), the soil is said to have reached its Saturation Capacity.
• Field Capacity:-
 Is the moisture content after the gravitational water has drained down. At
field capacity, the macro pores are field with air & capillary pores (micro)
pores filled with water.
 Represents the optimal moisture level for plant growth.
The volumetric moisture content at Fc is given by
θ fc = (p b )θ m
• Permanent Wilting Point:-
 The moisture level at which plants can no longer extract water from the soil,
causing them to wilt.
 This point represents the lower limit of water availability for plants. Unless water
is added to the soil.
θv(pwp) =(pb) θm(pwp)
 Saturation

Gravitational water

Field capacity

Capillary water (Plant available

water)

Permanent welting point

Unavailable water

Hygroscopic coeff.

Hygroscopic water
Air dry

Oven dry

Fig. 2.5: Illustration of soil water constants

 Soil moisture ranges
1. Total available water, TAW
 The Soil moisture b/n FC and PWP is called available water.
 This is the water available for plant use.
2. Management allowed deficit (MAD)
 Soil allowed deplete before the next irrigation.
MAD=f.TAW
Where:- f= Allowable Deficit Fraction (a percentage that indicates how much
of the available water can be depleted before irrigation is needed).
3. Soil moisture deficit (SMD)
 Refers to the difference between the amount of moisture currently present
in the soil and the amount of moisture that the soil can hold at field
capacity
 It is the amount of water supplied by irrigation/Rainfall.
Infiltration
 Infiltration is a process in which water enters the surface
strata of the soil mass.
 The infiltrated water first meets the soil moisture deficiency, if
any, and thereafter the excess water moves vertically
downwards to reach the groundwater table. This vertical
movement is called percolation.
 Infiltration capacity of the soil is defined as the maximum rate
at which it is capable of absorbing water.
Major factors governing the rate of
infiltration of water
a) Conditions and characteristics of surface soil,
b) Duration and intensity of irrigation or rainfall,
c) Vegetation cover,
d) Tillage and crop management practices
 Measurement of infiltration:
(1) Indirect Method: They involve artificial
application of water over sample area. The
mechanism used for this purpose is called
infiltration. There are two types of
infiltrometers such as flooding type and rain
simulators
• Direct method: It consists of analysis of runoff
hydrograph resulting from a natural rainfall
over a basin under consideration.
Indirect Method:

Double ring infiltrometer Single ring infiltrometer

Some common terms related to infiltration:

• Infiltration rate, I: The maximum rate at which

water will enter the soil mass through the surface.
• Cumulative infiltration, Z :The total quantity of
water that enters the soil at a given time.
• Basic infiltration, fo : Rate of infiltration decreases
rapidly initially and tends to approach a constant value,
which is called basic infiltration.
• Example of Infiltration rate (Average , instantaneous) , and
cumulative infiltration depth
• Infiltration rate as function of moisture content.
Cumulative Infiltration Depth vs. Time
For Different Soil Textures
Infiltration Rate vs. Time
For Different Soil Textures
Infiltration equations
• Numerous empirical equations have been developed to
represent the infiltration phenomena. Most of these equations
are empirical in nature and have been developed to match
observed data sets.
a) Kostiakov equation
b) Philip equation
c) Soil conservation Service equations
 Chapter Three
Crop Water Requirements

By: Eneyew Tamiru

Objectives
Students will be able to
 Define the crop water requirement (CWR).
 Identify the method of estimation of CWR based on
climatic conditions and crop characteristics.
 Distinguish reference evapotranspiration and actual
evapotranspiration.
 Evaluate the performance of irrigation systems using
performance indicators.
 Identify the types of irrigation efficiencies.
 Crop Water Requirements
• It is the total amount of water required by the crop in a given period of
time for normal growth, under field conditions.

• It includes evapotranspiration, water used by crops for metabolic

growth, water lost during application of water and the water required
for special operations such as land preparation, tillage and salt
leaching etc.

• It is expressed as the surface depth of water in mm, cm or inches per

unit cropped area.

CWR = Consumptive use (Cu) + losses (Wu) + water required for

special operation (Ws)
Aim of Crop Water Requirement Study:
• To decide possible cropping pattern of area

• Effective use of available water

• Plan and design an irrigation project

• Plan water resource development in an area

• Assess irrigation requirement of an area

• Management of water supply from sources

 Duty of irrigation water,
delta of crops, base period
• Duty of irrigation water:
– It is defined as the no. of hectares (acres) of land irrigated for
full growth of a given crop by supply of 1 m3/sec of water
continuously during the entire base period. It is affected by
crop type, climate and season, useful rainfall, type of soil and
efficiency of cultivation method etc.
• Delta of crops:
– It is the total quantity of water required by the crops for full
growth as depth to which water would stand on the irrigated
area.
Delta =
• Base period:
– It is the time between first watering of crops at the time of its
sowing and the last watering of crops before harvesting
 Relationship between Duty, Delta
and Base period
Let there be a crop of base period B days.

Now the volume of water applied to this crop during B days @ 1 m3/sec = V = (1 x
60 x 60 x 24 x B) m3 = 86400 B

By definition of duty, 1 m3/sec of water supplied for B days matures/irrigates D

hectares (104 m2)of land.

So total depth of water supplied to this land (Delta) = Volume/Area = 86400B/104D

Therefore,

Delta = ∆ = 8.64 B / D (meters)

Delta = ∆ = 864 B / D (centimeters)

Example:
• Find the delta of a crop when its duty is 864 hectare/cumecs with base period of
120 days.
 Cont…
Factors affecting Duty;
- Duty of water depends up on different factors. In general, the smaller
the losses, the greater is duty because one cumec of water will be able to
irrigate larger area.
• Type of soil
• Type of crop and base period
• structure of soil
• Slop of ground
• Climatic condition
• Method of application of water
• Salt content of soil
- Duty of water may be improved by counter – acting all the factors that
decrease it (by decreasing various losses).
Sources of water for Crop Use
• Effective Precipitation (ER):
– It is that part of total precipitation which is used by crop as
soil water reserve. It is the precipitation falling during the
growing period of a crop that is available to meet the
evapotranspiration needs of the crop. It is determined as:

ER = Total rainfall (P) – Runoff (R) – deep percolation (PW)

• Gross Irrigation requirements of crops (IRg):

– It refers to the amount of water applied to the field from the
start of land preparation to harvest of the crop together with
the water lost through distributaries and field channels and
during water application to the crop field.
 Sources of water for Crop Use
IRg = CWR – (ER + ∆SW + ∆GW)

• Net Irrigation requirements

– It refers to the amount of water needed to replenish soil moisture deficit in
the crop field.

IRn = IRg x Efficiency of water application

= Cu – ER - conveyance losses

• Soil Water Contribution for Crop Use (∆SW):

– It refers to the difference in moisture content at the time of sowing and
harvesting of the crops that may be positive or negative.
 Sources of water for Crop Use

• Ground Water Contribution for Crop Use (∆GW):

– It refers to the water used by crops due to
capillary rise in case of shallow water tables.
CWR = ER + IRg + ∆SW + ∆GW
 Evapotranspiration (ET) and
Consumptive use (Cu)
• Evapotranspiration:
– It is defined as the water transpired by crop plants and the water
evaporated from the soil in the crop field and intercepted precipitation
by areal parts of plants in any specified time period

• Consumptive use:
– It is the evapotranspiration plus the water used by plants for metabolic
activities which is hardly 1 % of ET

• Consumptive use is the water required by plants to fulfill the

evapotranspiration needs of crops. (FAO)

• Consumptive use is the total amount of water used by the plants in

transpiration (building of plant tissues etc) and evaporation from adjacent
soils or from plant leaves in any specified time period. (S.K. GARG)
The partitioning of evapotranspiration into evaporation and
transpiration over the growing period for an annual field crop.
Classification of Consumptive use
• Daily Consumptive use:
– The amount of water consumptively used during 24-hours.
– It is estimated usually to record the peak period consumptive use
rates to formulate the cropping pattern and to decide the water
supply from sources during different periods of cropping.

• Peak Period consumptive use:

– It is the average daily consumptive use during a few days (6 to 10
days) of highest consumptive use in a season.

– It occurs when the vegetation is abundant, temperature is high and

crops are in flowering stage.

– It is used in the planning of an irrigation system.

 Classification of Consumptive use

• Seasonal consumptive use:

– It is the amount of water consumptively used by crops during
the entire cropping season/period.
– It is used to evaluate and decide the seasonal water supply to
a command area of an irrigation project.
 Important terminology on
Evapotranspiration
• Potential / reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo):
– The highest rate of evapotranspiration (ET) by a short and
actively growing crop or vegetation with abundant foliage
(leafage) completely shading the ground surface and abundant
soil water supply under a given climate.
– An extensive surface of short green grass cover of uniform height
(0.12m), actively growing, completely shading the ground and no
water shortage resembles the reference crop.
• Actual crop evapotranspiration (ETc):
– It is the rate of evapotranspiration by a particular crop in a given
period under prevailing soil water and atmospheric conditions.
Important terminology on
Evapotranspiration
– It refers to the evapotranspiration from a disease free crop
growing in a large field under optimal soil conditions with
adequate water and fertility and giving full potential production
under the given environment.

– Usually calculated by multiplying the Crop Coefficient (Kc) for

the period with ETc, thus

ETcrop = Kc. ETo

Fig. Reference (ETo), crop evapotranspiration under standard (ETc) and non-
standard conditions (ETc adj)
 Factors affecting Evapotranspiration
• Climatic factors:
– Precipitation, with greater frequency and amount of rainfall, ET
becomes higher. In un-irrigated areas, water needs of crops are
mainly met from precipitation and in irrigated areas it decides the
amount of water available for irrigation.
– Solar radiations, it supplies energy for ET processes. With
increasing day length or solar radiation, ET becomes more.
– Temperature, Temperature of plant and soil rises because of
more amount of solar radiation received from the sun and
consequently increases ET.
– Wind speed, ET from soil surface and plants occurs at a higher
rate on a windy day. The moist air in the immediate vicinity of a
moist soil or leaf surface is swept away by wind and the dry air
occupies the space.
 Factors affecting Evapotranspiration
– Relative humidity, ET varies inversely with the atmospheric
humidity
• Growing season:
– Length of growing season and the actual date of sowing and
maturing are important factors. The growing season of a crop
coinciding with the hotter part of the year is expected to increase
ET. Crops grown in different seasons have different ET.
• Crop characteristics:
– Growth habit, canopy development, leaf area index, plant density,
duration and time of year when the growth is made, are important
consideration to study the effect of crop characteristics on ET.
 Factors affecting Evapotranspiration
• Soil characteristics:
– Hydraulic conductivity and water holding capacity of soil
affect ET.

• Cultural Factors:
– Irrigation frequency, method of irrigation, depth of irrigation,
fertilizer application and mulching are the important cultural
factors affecting ET.
Methods of estimating Evapotranspiration
• These methods are classified into three types:
• Direct methods
– Lysimeter method
– Field experimentation method
– Soil water depletion method
– Inflow-outflow method

• Pan evaporimeter method

– USWB class-A pan evaporimeter

• Empirical methods
– Blaney criddle method
– Penman method
– Modified penman method
– Radiation method
– Penman Monteith equation
 Direct Methods
• Lysimeter method:
– Used to measure ET and various components of water
balance
– It is a container (usually 0.5 m – 2 m in diameter) having an
experimental soil separated from the surrounding soil in the
crop field.
– Lysimeter are installed in fields with a large guard area having
the same crop as in the lysimeter.
– Measurements of different components for water balance
studies such as water added to lysimeter through precipitation
and irrigation, change in soil water storage and water lost
through evaporation, transpiration, runoff and deep percolation
are made,
– Lysimeters are so constructed that measurements of deep
percolation and surface runoff are possible or it is possible to
avoid these losses.
– Both weighing and non weighing type lysimeters are used for
measurement of ET
– For very short period (daily or hourly) estimates of ET, weighing
type lysimeter is used
Direct Methods

Weighing and non weighing type lysimeters

 Direct Methods
• Field experimentation method:
– Field experiments with varying level of irrigation are carried
out to estimate seasonal consumptive use of irrigated crops
– Measurement of water supplied to the crops through
effective rainfall and irrigation and changes in the soil
moisture reserves during the growing season are made
– The water thus supplied under varying levels of irrigation is
then correlated the yields obtained
– The quantity of water used to produce most profitable yield is
taken as CU.
 Direct Methods
• Soil water depletion method:
– Soil water contents in different layers of root zone are
measured just before and after irrigation or rainfall and during
the period between two successive irrigations as frequently
as possible depending upon the degree of accuracy desired.
– The soil water depletion during any short period is
considered as the consumptive use for that period.
– The seasonal consumptive use is obtained by summing up
soil water depletion or losses during the different periods of
measurement in the growing season.
Direct Methods
• Inflow-outflow method:
– Used to estimate yearly consumptive use over large area, also
called as water balance method

– Change in soil water storage is considered negligible and it is

assumed that the subsurface inflow into the area is same as
subsurface outflow
 Pan evaporimeter method
• USWB class-A pan evaporimeter:
– There exist a close relationship between the rate of
consumptive use by crop and the rate of evaporation from
properly located pan evaporimeter.
– Pan evaporation is the combined effect of all atmospheric
factors and is independent of plant and soil factors
– Crop evapotranspiration rates for various crops may be
estimated from the pan evaporation rates multiplied by a
factor known as crop factor (K crop) which varies with the
stages of growth, extent of ground cover with foliage, climate
and geographical locations
 USWB class-A pan evaporimeter

• The relationship between potential evapotranspiration and pan

evaporation is given as:
USWB class-A pan evaporimeter
Empirical methods
• Blaney criddle method
• Penman method
• Modified penman method
• Radiation method
• Penman Monteith equation
Empirical methods
• FAO Blaney criddle method:
– Developed a formula for estimating CU based on temperature, daylight
hours, and locally developed crop coefficients
– ET0 = C P (0.46T + 8)
Where,
C = Adjustment factor which depends on the min relative
humidity, sunshine hours and daytime wind estimates.
T = Mean daily temperature in oC over the month considered.
P = Mean daily percentage of total annual day time hours
obtained from the relevant table for a given month and
latitude.
 Empirical methods
• Penman method
– Developed the formula using important climatic
parameters such as solar radiation, temperature, vapour
pressure and wind velocity to compute the evaporation
from open free water surface
– ET is obtained by multiplying with crop coefficient
• It is quite satisfactory for both humid and arid regions under
calm weather conditions
• It drawback is that it uses many climatological parameters that
are difficult to obtain
 FAO Penman-Monteith Equation
• The FAO Penman-Monteith method is recommended as the
best method for determining reference evapotranspiration.

• The method has been selected because it closely approximates

grass ETo at the location evaluated, is physically based, and
explicitly incorporates both physiological and aerodynamic
parameters.

• Moreover, procedures have been developed for estimating

missing climatic parameters.
 FAO Penman-Monteith Equation

Where:
Rn is the net radiation,
G is the soil heat flux,
(es - ea) represents the vapour pressure deficit of the air,
ρa is the mean air density at constant pressure,
cp is the specific heat of the air,
Δ represents the slope of the saturation vapour pressure temperature
relationship,
λ is the latent heat of vaporization and γ is psychrometric constant, and
rs and ra are the (bulk) surface and aerodynamic resistances.

Note: Recently developed software such as Eto Calculator and Crowpat 8.0
are based on this formula
 Penman-Monteith Equation
• The surface resistance, rs, describes the resistance of vapour flow
through stomata openings, total leaf area and soil surface.

• The aerodynamic resistance, ra, describes the resistance from the

vegetation upward and involves friction from air flowing over
vegetative surfaces.

• The latent heat of vaporization, λ, expresses the energy required

to change a unit mass of water from liquid to water vapour in a
constant pressure and constant temperature process. The value of
the latent heat varies as a function of temperature

• The specific heat at constant pressure Cp is the amount of

energy required to increase the temperature of a unit mass of air by
one degree at constant pressure. Its value depends on the
composition of the air, i.e., on its humidity
 Penman-Monteith Equation
• The vapour pressure deficit is the difference between the saturation
(es) and actual vapour pressure (ea) for a given time period.

• The solar radiation received at the top of the earth's atmosphere on

a horizontal surface perpendicular to sun’s rays is called the
extraterrestrial (solar) radiation, Ra

• The net radiation, Rn, is the difference between incoming and

outgoing radiation of both short and long wavelengths. It is the
balance between the energy absorbed, reflected and emitted by the
earth's surface or the difference between the incoming net
shortwave (Rns) and the net outgoing longwave (Rnl) radiation

• The soil heat flux, G, is the energy that is utilized in heating the
soil. it is positive when the soil is warming and negative when the
soil is cooling. The soil heat flux is small compared to Rn and may
often be ignored
 Exercise on ETo calculation
Compute the Reference Evapotranspiration (ET0)
of the month February for the place which is
located geographically at latitude 370 N and
medium of n/N ratio using Blaney-Criddle
graphic method. Necessary data for the area in
which the calculation carried out are given as
follow.
Table 1 Monthly day light hour’s percentage (P) to be used by Blaney-Criddle Formula

Lat. Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
oN

0 8.50 7.66 8.49 8.21 8.50 8.22 8.50 8.49 8.21 8.50 8.22 8.50

10 8.13 7.47 8.45 8.37 8.81 8.60 8.86 8.71 8.25 8.34 7.91 8.10

15 7.94 7.36 8.43 8.44 8.98 8.80 9.05 8.83 8.28 8.26 7.75 7.88

20 7.74 7.25 8.41 8.52 9.15 9.00 9.25 8.96 8.30 8.18 7.58 7.66

25 7.53 7.14 8.39 8.61 9.33 9.23 9.45 9.09 8.32 8.09 7.40 7.42

30 7.30 7.03 8.38 8.72 9.53 9.49 9.67 9.22 8.33 7.99 7.19 7.15

370 N
35 7.05 ??
6.88 8.35 8.83 9.76 9.77 9.93 9.37 8.36 7.87 6.97 6.86

40 6.76 6.72 8.33 8.95 10.02 10.08 10.22 9.54 8.39 7.75 6.72 6.52

42 6.63 6.65 8.31 9.00 10.14 10.22 10.35 9.62 8.40 7.69 6.62 6.37

44 6.49 6.58 8.30 9.06 10.26 10.38 10.49 9.70 8.41 7.63 6.49 6.21

46 6.34 6.50 8.29 9.12 10.39 10.54 10.64 9.79 8.42 7.57 6.36 6.04

48 6.17 6.41 8.27 9.18 10.53 10.71 10.80 9.89 8.44 7.51 6.23 5.86

50 5.98 6.30 8.24 9.24 10.68 10.91 10.99 10.00 8.46 7.45 6.100 5.65

370 N
P value at Handout
PAGE 13
P=6.826 Table 1
Daily climatic data of February

Tmax Tmin U (m/s) @ 2 m- Rhum_perc

average average average average
AVERAGE 34.0971429 21.32429 2.113217857 35.83529286
Tmean
Tmean 27.7107143
 PAGE 15
Fig. 5

Tmax Tmin U (m/s) @ 2 Rhum_perc

average average m-average average
34.09714 21.3242
AVERAGE 29 9 2.113217857 35.83529286
Tmean
27.710714
Tmean 3

5.058 Answer:
f=P(0.46T+8)=6.826/28*(0.46*27.71+8)= 5.058 ETo= 6 mm/day
Determination of Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc) Under Standard Condition

 Two calculation approaches are outlined:

• The single and

• The dual crop coefficient approach

• The single crop coefficient approach is used for most applications related to
irrigation planning, design, and management.

• The crop evapotranspiration differs distinctly from the reference

evapotranspiration (ETo) as the ground cover, canopy properties and

aerodynamic resistance of the crop are different from grass.

Calculation procedure by the crop
coefficient approach:
• In the single crop coefficient approach the crop
evapotranspiration, ETc, is calculated by multiplying the
reference crop evapotranspiration, ETo, by a crop coefficient,
Kc:
• ETc = Kc * ETo

Where:
ETc crop evapotranspiration [mm d-1],
Kc crop coefficient [dimensionless],
ETo reference crop evapotranspiration [mm d-1]
• Kc is an integration of the effects of four primary characteristics
that distinguish the crop from reference grass. These
characteristics are:
• Crop height
• Albedo (reflectance) of the crop-soil surface
• Canopy resistance
• Evaporation from soil
Crop Coefficient
• Crop coefficient:
– It is the ratio b/w the actual crop Evapotranspiration to the
reference crop evapotranspiration.
Kc = ETc / ETo
• It determined experimentally for various crops, ETc is determined
by Lysimeter technique and ETo by USWB class A evaporation
pan.

• Kc is different for different crop and for different crop growth

stages.

• It is mainly affected by crop type, varieties, growing season.

 Crop coefficient (Kc)

Figure: Typical Kc at mid season for different types of full grown crops
Crop growth stages
Crop growth stages

1. Initial stage
The initial stage runs from planting date to approximately 10% ground cover.

2. Crop development stage

The crop development stage runs from 10% ground cover to effective full cover. Effective
full cover for many crops occurs at the initiation of flowering.

3. Mid-season stage
The mid-season stage runs from effective full cover to the start of maturity. The start of
maturity is often indicated by the beginning of the ageing,

4. Late season stage

The late season stage runs from the start of maturity to harvest or full senescence.
Source: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24
Typical ranges expected in Kc for the four growth stages.
Crop coefficient curve
• The curve represents the changes in the crop coefficient over
the length of the growing season.
 STEPS for constructing the crop
coefficient curve:
1. Divide the growing period into four general growth
stages that describe crop phonology or development
(initial, crop development, mid-season, and late season
stage), and identify the three Kc values that correspond to
Kc ini, Kc mid and Kc end from Table.
2. Adjust the Kc values to the frequency of wetting
and/or climatic conditions of the growth stages.
3. Construct a curve by connecting straight line segments
through each of the four growth stage.
During the crop development and late season stage, Kc varies
linearly between the Kc at the end of the previous stage (Kc prev)
and the Kc at the beginning of the next stage (Kc next), which is
Kc end in the case of the late season stage:

Where:
• i day number within the growing season [1.. length of
the growing season],
• Kci crop coefficient on day i,
• Lstage length of the stage under consideration [days],
• (Lprev) sum of the lengths of all previous stages [days]
 Irrigation Requirements and Irrigation Efficiencies

 The irrigation water requirement of crops is defined as the

part of water requirement of crops that should be fulfilled by
irrigation.
– WR=IR + Peff + S + GW
– IR= WR-(Peff + S+ GW)
Irrigation scheduling and irrigation
efficiencies.
Lesson objectives
 By the end of the lesson, Students will be able to
– Determine the irrigation Scheduling such as depth
of irrigation and irrigation interval.
– Evaluate the performance of irrigation systems
using performance indicators i.e efficiencies.
– Identify the types of irrigation efficiencies
Irrigation scheduling
Irrigation Scheduling
• Irrigation scheduling is the process used by
irrigation system managers to determine the
correct frequency and duration of watering.
• Irrigation scheduling is the schedule in which
water is applied to the field.
• The two scheduling parameters of field
irrigation scheduling are the depth of irrigation
and interval of irrigation.
The depth of irrigation (d)

 The depth of irrigation (d) is given by;

y ,m
Where y𝒔= Apparent specific gravity of soil
D = Effective root zone depth in m θ𝑭𝑪
= water content of soil at FC
θ𝑷𝑾𝑷 = Water content of soil at PWP
P = depletion factor
Gross irrigation requirement (GIR)

• Usually more amount of water than the NIR is applied

during irrigation to compensate for the unavoidable
losses.

 Where; Ea = Field application efficiency and other

parameters as defined above
 Interval of irrigation (i):
• The interval of irrigation is the time gap in days between two
successive irrigation applications.
• It depends on the type of the crop, soil type and climate
conditions.
• Thus interval of irrigation depends on the consumptive use rate
of the crop and the amount of readily available moisture (RAM)
in the crop root zone.
y θ
i mm
peak day
Individual exercise
An irrigation site in an irrigation scheme has soil sample with a field Capacity
of 28% and the permanent wilting point of 8%.
a) Determine the water storage capacity of the soil if the depth of root zone is
0.8 m. Take dry unit weight of soil as 15 KN/m2.
b) Irrigation water is applied when the moisture content of the soil decreases
to 18%. Determine the water depth required to be applied if the water
application efficiency is 80%.
c) Assume the peak Evapotranspiration rate of 15 mm/day, calculate the
suggested irrigation intervals in days.

Do the tasks in 10 min.

Solution
a) Maximum Storage capacity
y𝒔 𝑭𝑪 𝑷𝑾𝑷

𝑭𝑪 𝑷𝑾𝑷

= 0.245m
b) Depth of irrigation to be applied
𝑭𝑪

net= 0.1m
Depth of irrigation including the losses i.e Gross irrigation
requirement
= =0.125 m
C) Irrigation Interval
i mm
peak day

i mm
day

i
C) Irrigation Interval
i mm
peak day

i mm
day

 Note: Use 6 days instead of 6.67 to avoid plant under water

stress.
Irrigation Scheduling in a Command Area
• This is a schedule of the total volume of water to be
applied to the Command area during irrigation.
• It is expressed as: -
y θ θ

• Where: q= Stream size (application rate) lit/sec

t = Application time in sec
Ea = Application efficiency
ys = Apparent specific gravity
D = Effective root zone depth, m
P = Depletion factor
A = Area of the command (field) in ha
The total volume of water diverted at
the headwork
• The total volume of water diverted at the headwork will
obviously be greater than above value, because there is loss of
water during conveyance and distribution canals. The total
volume of water to be diverted is given by:

y θ θ

• Where: Q = flow rate at the head work, lit/sec.

Ep = project efficiency and others as defined above.
Performance evaluation of irrigation systems
(Irrigation Efficiency)
Brainstorming question

• Explain why we need performance evaluation of irrigation

systems?
Performance evaluation of irrigation systems

∆ Assessment of
– Canal damage
– Ponding on irrigation field
– Losses of water
– Yield productivity decrease
– Social and environmental aspect
∆ Efficiency, equity, sustainability, adaptability,
effectiveness…etc
Irrigation Efficiencies
1.Water conveyance efficiency ( Ec)
• Used to measure the efficiency of water conveyance
system associated with the canal network, water courses
and field channels.
Ec
• Where Ec = water conveyance efficiency , %
Wf = Water delivered to the irrigated plot
( At the field supply channel)
Wd = Water diverted from the source.
2. Water application Efficiency (Ea)

• Where Ea = application efficiency, %

Ws = water stored in the root zone of the plants.
Wp = Water delivered to the irrigated plot

• Water application efficiency below 100 percent are due to

seepage looses from the field distribution channels, deep
percolation below the crop root zone and runoff loses from
the tail end of borders and furrows ( in very long fields).
3. Water storage efficiency (Es)

• Where Es = Water storage efficiency , %

Ws = water stored in the root zone of the plants.
Wn = Water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation
4. Field Canal Efficiency (Eb)
• This ratio between water received at the field inlet and
that received at the inlet of the block of fields.

• Where Ef = Field canal efficiency

Wp= water received at the field inlet
Wf = water delivered to the field channel
5. Distribution Efficiency (Ed)
• This shows how uniformly water is applied to the
field along the irrigation run.

( y
Ed = 1– x100
d

• Where Ed = water distribution efficiency , %

d = average depth of water penetration.
y = average deviation from d.
6. Water Use Efficiency
• This shows the yield of the crop per unit volume of water used. It
may be expressed in Kg/ha.cm or q/ha.cm.
a) Crop Water Use Efficiency: is the ratio of the crop yield (Y) to
the amount of water consumptively used by the crop.

b) Field Water Use Efficiency: is the ratio of the crop yield (y) to the
total water requirement of crops including Cu losses and other needs.
7. Project Efficiency (Ep)
• It indicates the overall efficiency of the systems from
the head work to the final use by plants for Cu.
• The Overall project efficiency must be considered in
order to fix the amount of water required at the
Diversion head work.
 Exercise
A stream size of 150 lit /sec was released from the diversion headwork
to irrigate a land of area 1.8 hectares. The stream size when measured at
the delivery to the field channels is 120lit/sec. The stream continued for
8 hours. The effective root zone depth is 1.80m. The application losses
in the field are estimated to be 440m3.
The depth of water penetration was 1.80m and 1.20m at the head and
tail of the run respectively. The available water holding capacity of the
soil is 21cm/m and irrigation was done at 60% depletion of AM.
Find Ec, Ef, Ea, Es and Ed. The stream size delivered to the plot was
100 lit/sec for the irrigation period of 8 hours.
Solution: