A

REPORT

ICIMOD International Center for Integrated Mountain Development Jawalakhel, Kathmandu, Nepal May 2003

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Executive Summary LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF APPENDICES 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.2 Nepalese Agriculture 1.3 Priority to Poverty Alleviation 1.4 Gender Disrcimination 1.5 Fruit Cultivation 1.6 Citrus Growing in Nepal 2.0 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 2.1 General Objective 2.2 Specific Objectives 3.0 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Reviews of Previous Studies 3.2 Field Survey 3.3 Field Visits and Monitoring 3.4 Report Preparation 4.0 REVIEWS OF THE PREVIOUS STUDIES 4.1 Citrus Cultivars 4.2 Production Constraints 5.0 POLLINATORS AND POLLINATION REQUIREMENTS 5.1 Pollination 5.2 Significance of Pollination in Citrus Crop Pollination 5.3 Honeybee Pollinators 5.4 Pollination Requirements and Practices 6.0 SURVEY FINDINGS 6.1 General Information 6.2 Citrus Cultivation and Gender Involvement 6.3 Orchard Management 6.4 Farmers Awareness on Pollinators 6.5 Support to Citrus and Pollinators Promotion 7.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 8.0 REFERENCES APPENDICES STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE FOR SURVEY CHECK LIST FOR ACADEMICIANS

Page iii v vi vii 1 1 2 3 4 5 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 12 14 18 18 19 21 25 25 25 28 29 30 31 34 41 36 40

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Nepal: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Page Key economic indicators

2 Trends in incidence and long-term target for poverty alleviation in Nepal 2 Gender disparity in Nepal 3 Fruit area and production in Nepal 4 Per capita annual consumption of fruits in Nepal 5 Citrus fruits producing districts by developmental regions in Nepal 6 Growth of citrus industry in Nepal 6 Commonly recognized citrus groups and their species 9 Total mandarin production area (ha) by developmental regions 10 Mandarin productive area (ha) by developmental regions 10 Mandarin production (mt) by developmental regions 10 Junar area and production by developmental regions 11 Kagati area and production by developmental regions 11 Nibuwa area and production by developmental regions 12 Main problems of citrus and suggested measures 13 Commonly recognized citrus hybrids 16 Citrus species and honeybee pollinators 18 Common arthropod visitors of citrus species (a, b, c) 22 Family structure and education status of citrus farming households 25 Source of income and savings of citrus farming households 25 Gender involvement in service and agriculture 25 a. Plantation and mortality of citrus saplings, b. Technicians feelings on citrus varieties grown by farmers with preference 26 a. Fruit sale by farmers from their orchards, b. Technicians responses on citrus marketing channel 27

24 Gender involvement in citrus plantation, fruit marketing and money handling 27 25 Various problems faced by citrus farmers 28 26 Pesticides used by farmers in citrus orchard 28 27 Indigenous knowledge of pest control practiced by farmers 28 28 a. Farmers awareness on harmful effects of pesticides, b. Technicians awareness on effects of pesticides on citrus pollination 29 29 Waiting period followed by users after spraying pesticides 29 30 a. Farmers awareness on pollinators visiting citrus flowers, b. Technicians awareness on citrus pollinators and pollination 29 31 a. Farmers with citrus orchard and beekeeping, b. Technicians awareness on wild honeybees visiting citrus flowers 30 32 Farmers awareness on biodiversity conservation and environment protection 30 33 a. supporting organizations to establish citrus orchard, b. Technicians suggestions on citrus growing and pollination promotion 31

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Biodiversity conservation and productivity enhancement 1 IPM for pest management, conserving pollinators and increasing productivity 30 2 Photographs of citrus species, flowering, pollination, production, and marketing 41 Page 31

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Structured 36 2 Checklist 41

Page questionnaire for for academicians survey

Cash Crop Farming in Nepal: The Importance of Pollinators Diversity and Managed Pollination in Citrus

Executive Summary Nepal offers a diversified climatic conditions and the natural resource base for low cost production of a wide variety of horticultural commodities of which citrus is one of the major fruits covering 25% of the total fruit area in 58 districts of the country and has been recognized as high value cash crop by National Agriculture Perspective Plan. At present, 55 districts, 49 in the hills and 6 in the terai covering a total area of 73775 ha produce 487326 mt citrus fruits in Nepal. APP (1995) puts higher demand i.e. more than double amount of fruits within the decades. A study was carried out to identify insect pollinators diversity and explore citrus production and marketing potential for generating cash income for improving livelihood of the rural subsistence farmers. Of the 55 sampled households involved in citrus farming, the average household size of the sampled citrus farmer was 6.5. The major source of income was from citrus farming (Rs 43933/ household/ annum) followed by services (Rs 36090/household/annum) and other agricultural activities. The study also indicates that citrus farming is associated with higher income families rather than poor subsistence farmers. Farmers planted different species of citrus crops of which orange was the main citrus grown in commercial scale with an average of nearly 200 plants per citrus farmers while lime was confined in very small scale production and sale. Other citrus crops were grown just for home consumption. The variety selection was based on easy high productivity and easy marketing Sapling mortality was the highest in Junar (>46%), intermediate in orange (18%) and lime (12%) with no mortality of Nibuwa saplings at the farmers field level. Majority of farmers (84%) sell their fruits through middleman (contractor) because they have no groups and have no access to distant market. Therefore, there exists a big gap between producers and consumers and farmers have no bargaining power of their produce and are deprived of higher profits. The survey clearly showed a great disparity in gender involvement in citrus farming. It also indicated that involvement of male and female varied as per specific activities. Decision making and money handling (orchard site and citrus variety selection, harvesting and marketing fruits, training) was solely on the males possession while womens involvement was even higher than male in some specific field works such as pit filling, weeding, manuring and intercropping indicating an ample opportunities of women involvement in citrus farming.

Citrus farmers have faced various problems such as natural (hailstorms), biological (Insects and disease pests, wild animals) and technical (experiences, skills, training etc) difficulties. There is no record of complete failure of crops for past 5-10 years, but majority of the farmers lost part of their crops due to unpredicted hailstorms, increasing pests and lack of irrigation facility. More than 50% of the farmers have been practicing control measures of which majority spray different chemicals while a few also apply their indigenous knowledge of pest management techniques. However, very few farmers (11%) are aware of harmful effects of pesticides and only few farmers (7%) wait after spray to pick up fruits. Technicians are better aware than farmers in this regard but that have not been transformed to farmers level. Development of citrus is mainly through the efforts of HMGN. But role of pollinators in citrus pollination and productivity enhancement has completely been forgotten. Majority of farmers and technicians are not aware of natural pollinators or managed pollination of citrus. More than 90% of the citrus farmers have no idea of pollinators and pollination of citrus and very few farmers (15%) have local bees in hives which is just for honey production not for managed pollination. Farmers are not aware of biodiversity conservation and environment protection. Rather, they have a common feeling that bees or insects suck fruit juice and reduce crop yield. Based on the survey, orange and lemon can be taken as priority crops and their production and productivity can be increased through the promotion of these crops and their pollinators. It has been learned from various high value crop production activities that group mobilization and community development has been proved better for institutionalization of the program and therefore, promotion of indigenous bees and conservation of other pollinators of crops in the hills and the mountains may not be possible in isolation rather working through group formation and their mobilization will develop capability of the local organization to run their activity themselves in the long run. Foraging preference of different pollinators including honeybees to crop pollination and their suitability at different ecological regimes need to be studied. Based on their preference, and efficiency on pollination of selected priority crops their establishment and isolation with species can be maintained in the future. Hence, the first priority is that citrus farming as the mainstay of subsistence farmers through group mobilization and the second priority its promotion through integrated approach are the best choices to increase productivity, conserve, natural and managed pollinators, and maintaining sound and healthy biodiversity as well.

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background

Nepal is a small Himalayan country with amazing bio-geographical setting along with climatic variations supporting rich biological diversity in a small area of 147181 km2. The climatic feature shows that it gets cooler from South to North decreasing temperature 1 0C with every 3 0 North Latitude and 0.5 0C at every 100 m altitude. Day and night temperature highly fluctuates in the western parts than in the eastern parts of the country. Southern facing of the land surface is warmer than northern facing and thus soil temperature is also influenced by land surface facing to north or south. Monsoon starts from South - Eastern part of Nepal and moves to North with average annual rainfall of 1500 ml (80% of total rainfall in June-August) with relative humidity higher in the rainy season and lover in the western parts than in the eastern parts. Nearly, 7,000 plant species (0.5 percent of the total species that have been described so far worldwide) are available in the country. It contains only about 0.1 percent of the total land mass of the world while it harbors about 2 percent of flowering plants, 3 percent of pteridophytes, and 6 percent of bryophytes of the world flora (Upreti, 1998). In addition, about 5 percent (246) of the total flora reported are endemic to the country. A total of 844 species of birds are reported from Nepal of which 11 species are considered extinct. About 5,052 species of insects, belonging to 22 orders are reported so far from Nepal of which 1,131 species containing over 22 percent of the total species are known first discovered and described from Nepalese specimens (Thapa, 1997). Conservation and sustainable use of these natural resources is the need of the day.
1.2 Nepalese Agriculture Nearly, one-fifth of the total land area of the country is cultivated and 7 percent is under cultivable category; the area of operated land for agricultural purpose is less than 0.15 ha (per person). Therefore, most of the farmers in Nepal have subsistence farming. Saturation of cropped area, narrow base of year-round irrigation, imbalanced fertilizer use and consequently stagnant yield of major crops are the major features of Nepalese agriculture (APP, 1995). Agriculture was essentially the single most important economic sector in Nepal with almost all of the population engaged in this sector in or before the 1950s. Even at present, agriculture contributes nearly 50% of the national GDP and horticulture shares 14% of agricultural GDP (Table 1). Today, Nepal is one of the poorest nations in the world by all major indicators of social, economic and human development. Nepals agriculture has large potential to increase productivity through increase

specialization particularly in the hills which is suited to high value crops and livestock. The Ninth Plan (1998-2003) being implemented now has considered poverty alleviation as the important goal and this will continue as a challenge even in the future. The APP (1995) emphasizes crop diversification to introduce high value crops coupled with appropriate technology.
Table-1. Nepal: Key Economic Indicators (1992/93-1996/97)
SN 1 2 Particulars Current GDP at Factor Cost (NRs billion) Share of Agriculture (%) GDP Growth Rates at 1984/85 Price (%): 3 4 5 Overall Agriculture Non-agriculture Crop Production Growth Rates (%): 6 7 8 9 10 11 11.1 Overall Food grain Non-food grain National Urban CPI (% change) Gross Domestic Savings (% of GDP) Gross Domestic Investment (% of GDP) Exports (% of GDP) -4.7 -7.9 3.4 8.9 13.6 23.1 10.1 13.3 16.8 5.3 8.9 14.7 22.4 9.7 25.9 -4.0 -7.9 5.8 7.6 14.8 25.5 8.0 29.1 12.4 15.4 5.9 8.1 13.8 27.3 8.0 30.0 4.0 2.9 6.1 7.8 12.8 25.1 8.0 34.2 3.3 -0.6 6.5 7.9 7.6 8.1 2.9 -0.3 5.3 5.7 4.4 6.6 3.9 4.1 3.8 1992/93 165.3 42.3 1993/94 191.6 42.1 1994/95 210.0 40.7 1995/96 237.5 40.5 1996/97 266.8 40.4

11.2 Imports (% of GDP) 22.9 Source: HMG, Ministry of Finance, Economic Survey, 1997/98.

1.3 Priority to Poverty Alleviation The total operated area of land, as of 1992 Census of Agriculture, is 2.6 million ha (actually 2.4 million ha cultivated) of which 92.1 percent of land belong to the agriculture use with an average size of holding being quite less than a hectare. Therefore, majority of the farmers have substance farming and Nepal is one of the poorest country in the world (Singh, 1998). Household survey conducted in 1995/96 by CBS- the Nepal Living Standard Survey estimates Rs. 4404 (about US$ 80) per person per year to meet the minimum calorie intake including essential non-food expenses. On this basis, more than 40 percent of the population is classified as poor (Table 2). Another 28 percent more is found below one and a half times the designated poverty line. Over 80 percent of the poor live in the remote rural premises and agriculture is main source of their household income. Poverty, in general, is characterized by low income, which is the cause and effect of unemployment, under- employment and many other basic needs like food, clothing, shelter, health, education and social disparity. Poverty alleviation has been one of the major objectives of government plans (Table 2).

Table-2. Trends in Incidence and Long-term Target for Poverty Alleviation in Nepal
SN 1 2 3 4 5 Sources/Periodic Plans Survey of income, consumption employment conducted by NPC in 1977 Multipurpose household conducted by NRB in 1985 budget and survey Poverty Incidence/Alleviation Target Overall poverty incidence of 36.2 percent Overall poverty incidence of 42.6 percent Overall poverty incidence of 49.2 percent Overall poverty incidence of 49.0 percent Overall poverty incidence of 45.0 percent

The 8th plan (1992-97) document prepared by NPC in 1992 Monitoring micro impact of micro policies conducted by APROSC in 1992 National living standards survey conducted by CBS in 1996

Ongoing and succeeding plans aiming poverty alleviation 1 2 3 Ninth Plan (1998-2003) A.D. Tenth Plan (2003-2008) A.D. Ninth Plan (2008-2013) A.D. To reduce poverty from 45 percent to 32.5 percent To reduce poverty from 32.5 percent to 22.5 percent To reduce poverty from 22.5 percent to 15 percent

4 Ninth Plan (2013-2018) A.D. To reduce poverty from 15 percent to 10 percent Source: K. K. Guru-Gharana, 1997. Poverty situation in Nepal. J Dev. Loc. Gov. Vol 1. No. 2. Local Development Academy, Kathmandu. Singh (1998).

1.4 Gender Discrimination Gender disparity is highly persistent and women and children are much more affected by poverty in both rural and urban parts of the country (Table 3).
Table-3. Gender Disparity in Nepal
SN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Adult illiteracy (%) Life expectancy (yrs) Infant mortality (No/1000 live births) Crude death rate (No/1000 population Government servants and professionals (%) Enrollments in school (percent of total enrollment) Trained primary teachers (percent of total teachers) Trained secondary school teachers (percent of total teachers) Particulars Male 47 55 91 12 4.3 66 85 90 67 Female 81 53 105 15 1 34 15 10 33 Total 64 54 98 13 3 100 100 100 100

9 Earned income share (%) Source: National Planning Commission, 1995. Population Monograph of Nepal.

Nearly two-third of the adult population are illiterate; less than half of the population has access to safe drinking water and a negligible proportion has access to sanitation services. Malnutrition is widespread and so is illness. About half of the children below five years of age are under weight. Over all life expectancy at birth is low. Infants and maternal mortality rates are among the highest in the world.

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1.5 Fruit Cultivation The major fruit grown in the country are apple, citrus, mango, banana, pineapple etc. Fruits are being grown on an area of about 73775 ha representing nearly 8 percent of the total cropped area at present. The total production of fruits is about 487326 mt with an average productivity of 10.12 mt/ha (Table 4).
Table -4. Fruit Area and Production in Nepal (1993/93 to 2000/01) Year 1993/94 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 Total area (ha) 56191 58989 60960 62919 65205 67494 70068 73775 Productive area (ha) 37908 39445 41008 42285 43746 45108 46492 48166 Production (mt) 377911 398288 367490 428225 415167 456013 447334 487326 Yield (mt/ha) 9.97 10.10 8.96 10.13 9.49 10.11 9.62 10.12

Nepal has a diversified climatic conditions and the natural resource base for low cost production of a wide variety of horticultural commodities. Horticulture offers opportunity for high income per hectare in areas of acute land scarcity with favorable income generation, poverty reduction, and environmental effects. The high value of output per hectare assists in withdrawal of marginal lands from agriculture and the important role of high value tree crops on slopes both add greatly to environmental benefits. Fruits in human nutrition make balance diet which leads to the development of sound health and happiness of human beings. They are good source of energy because many of them contain digestible form of carbohydrate in the forms of sugars or starch or both. Citrus fruits contribute augmenting food, improvement in nutrition, generation of employment and income, and also help in maintaining healthy environment. Citrus fruits and fruit juice being refreshing and good source of vitamins, especially Vitamin-C and Vitamin B complex play an important role in human nutrition and are useful for the treatment of diseases arising from vitamin deficiencies including cough and cold (Cox, 1995). Vitamin C deficiency causes, scurvy disease, pain in joints, swelling of limbs, unhealthy gums, tooth decay, delay in wound healing and rheumatism. Doctors prescribe fruit juice for the treatment of many ailments like scurvy, night blindness, fever, anemia, ulcers etc. Dieticians recommended a consumption level of 30 gm of fruits, 200 gm of vegetables and 100 gm of potatoes per day per capita in balanced diet (FAO, 1986). This amounts to 10.95 kg fruits, 73.00 kg vegetables, and 36.5 kg of potatoes per capita per annum. Citrus consumption

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in the developed countries is 40-50 kg per capita while it is only 3-5 kg in the developing countries of Asia and Africa. The total availability of fruits per head day comes to about 16.44 gm but taking post harvest losses of 25-30% into consideration, the actual availability is only 12 gm per head per day, which is very low quantity than the recommended level of 85 gm per head per day according to nutritional standards. Fruit consumption in the developing countries like Nepal is very low (Table 5). The total availability of fruits per head per day comes to be about 16.44 gm but taking post harvest losses (25-30% loss) into consideration, actual availability is only 12.11 gm per head per day which is very low quantity than the recommended level of 85 gm per head per day according to nutritional standards (FAO, 1987). National APP (1995) puts higher demand i.e. more than double amount of fruits within the decades. The rapid development of citrus is the outcome of National periodic plans formulated for intensifying the production of horticultural crops in hills and mountains in commercial scales.
Table- 5. Per Capita Annual Consumption of Fruits in Nepal
Particular 1990 Consumption of fruits (kg) Demand of fruits (mt) MPHD (1990) 6.00 95,946 Year 2010 13.60 149,477

1.6 Citrus Growing in Nepal Citrus is one of the most important fruit crops grown in the world. It is also one of the major fruits of Nepal in terms of area coverage, production and export potential and has been recognized as high value cash crop by Agriculture Perspective Plan (APP, 1995). About 25% of the total fruit area in the country is covered by 15 species of citrus in 58 districts of the country. The total and productive area under citrus is 19018 ha and 11277 ha, respectively with annual production of 115067 mt (CBS, 2000). The citrus growing areas are mainly distributed between 26 45 and 29 40 North latitude, 80 15 and 88 12 East longitude, 900-1400 msl in mid hill districts of Nepal. At present, 55 districts, 49 in the hills and 6 in the terai covering a total area of 73775 ha produce 487326 mt citrus fruits in Nepal (Agri. Stat. Div. MOA, 2001).The largest citrus growing area covering more than 500 ha include Dhankuta in Eastern Development Region, Sindhuli, Ramechhap, kavre and Dhading in Central Development Region and Tanahun and Syngja in the Western Development Region, respectively. Citrus Development Division of HMGN (2000) focuses citrus growing on 44 districts and prioritizing 34 districts for its cultivation (Table 6). The area under citrus plantation in Nepal has increased about 6 times from 1975 to 1995 which jumped to more than 28 times in

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2000/2001 (Table 7). However, the productivity is very low (8.88 mt/ha in 1975 to 10.20 mt/ha in 2000) compared to other citrus producing countries in the world (USA, 36.9, FAO, 1999).
Table-6. Citrus Fruits Producing Districts by Developmental Regions in Nepal (2000/2001) Eastern Dhankuta* Bhojpur* Terahthum* Sankhuwasabha* Panchthar* Taplejung* Okhaldhunga* Khotang* Ilam Udaipur Solokhumbu Area: 5161.51 ha Area: 5697.57 ha Central Sindhuli* Ramechhap* Kavre* Sindhupalchok* Dhading* Dolakha* Nuwakot Western Gorkha* Tanahun* Lamjung* Syngja* Kaski* Palpa* Gulmi* Baglung* Arghakhachi* Myagdi* Parbat* Area: 5806.47 ha Area: 2454.14 ha Area: 1553.15 ha Mid-Western Dailekh* Salyan* Rukum* Rolpa* Pyuthan* Jajarkot Surkhet Kalikot Bankey Far-Western Dadeldhura* Baitadi* Doti* Achham* Darchula Bajura

Source: HMG/N. 2000/2001. Annual Report. Citrus Development Division, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. 48 p. * Priority districts: 34 out of total 44 citrus growing districts.

Table-7. Growth of Citrus Industry in Nepal (1975-2000) Year 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 Citrus Area (ha) 2600 5200 8448 13515 14628 15940 17026 18007 19018 Productive Area (ha) 1690 3300 5000 7136 8488 9335 10034 10592 11277 Production (mt) 15000 30000 45100 68639 83375 93046 100352 107250 115067 Yield (mt/ha) 8.88 9.10 9.02 9.62 9.82 9.97 10.00 10.13 10.20

Source: NCDP (1979, 1985, 1990); Agri. Stat. Div., MOA (1997, 2001)

There is a vast scope of growing citrus in the country. The followings points highlight the scope and significance of growing citrus fruits in the country. Nepal provides almost all types of suitable climate conditions for growing many fruit crops including citrus. But, at present, the total area under citrus cultivation is very small

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and demand is very high. In addition, the productive life of citrus is long and planting them once provides continuous production for long period of time that encourages farmers in fruit growing. The demand of fruits is very high and supply is too low, and therefore, to meet the minimum requirement of fruits in daily diets recommended by per nutritionists, more and more area under fruit crops have to be brought and productivity has to be improved. Citrus fruit growing provides better food as they are good source of vitamins and minerals and possess many medicinal properties. Citrus crops give high energy return per unit area compared to other cereal crops growing. Citrus fruits are basic needs for many kinds of industries or factories like canning, preservation, dehydration and essential oil extraction etc thereby supporting post harvest fruit industries. Citrus growing not only helps development of package, transportation, refrigeration etc. but also promotes apiculture and further improvement on production and productivity through pollination services. Citrus fruit growing create jobs to the rural poor and is a remunerative proposition for the rural subsistence farmers. Intercropping is possible during early stage of plant growth which provides additional incomes and efficient and economic use of human labor throughout the year. Fruit tree growing conserves soil, retain moisture and prevent soil erosion and also maintain soil fertility. Air pollution can be easily be minimized by massive planting of superior varieties because they are known to be the best air purifiers, maintain greenery and agro-diversity. 2.0 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 2.1 General Objective: The general objective of the study is to identify insect pollinators diversity of citrus in citrus growing pockets in Nepal, and explore citrus production and marketing potential for generating cash income for improving livelihood of the rural subsistence farmers. 2.2 Specific Objectives: The specific objectives are as follows: 1. Review available literature on insect pollinators and pollination of citrus crops; 2. Conduct field survey of citrus growing pockets and record insect pollinators diversity during flowering and fruiting of citrus crops; 3. Interview citrus farmers regarding citrus growing situation, its progress and potential for income generation and improving their livelihood and living standard; and

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4. Visits and discussion with technicians including policy makers for developing citrus industry to meet local market and export as well. 3.0 METHODOLOGY 1. Reviews of Previous Studies: Secondary information were gleaned through available literature such as APP, Annual Reports, Proceedings of Workshops, Journal Articles etc. 2. Field Survey: For the collection of primary information selected citrus farmers household survey was conducted. For this, survey questionnaire were prepared and shared with the working team, revised, modified and required numbers of hard copies printed to interview farmers. Then the finalized standard semi-structured interview type format was administered to collect necessary information such as socio-economic, land holdings, citrus growing, awareness of pollinators and environment including gender role in citrus farming. Similarly, checklist was prepared and discussed with the team, reframed and finalized checklist was used to discuss with technicians (academicians, extension and developmental workers, professional researchers and policy makers) to collect their views and vision in citrus farming and awareness on pollinators of citrus. 3. Field visits and monitoring: Time schedule was prepared and followed accordingly for survey and monitoring in the citrus growing areas, for recording insect pollinators and for interviewing citrus farmers. 4. Report preparation: Primary and secondary information were analyzed and report prepared. The report reviews present status of citrus farming, awareness of pollinators diversity and environmental safety and finally conclusion and recommendations have been made for selected citrus species development in a commercial scale.

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4.0 REVIEWS OF PREVIOUS STUDIES 4.1 Citrus Cultivars Under citrus group, many members are being grown in many part of the world (Table 8). Many citrus species and varieties are also cultivated in Nepal. Among them, the three important species on which modern citrus industry of the country has been flourished include: Suntala (Citrus reticulata Blanco), Junar (C. sinensis Osbeck) and Kagati (C. aurantifolia Swing) (MOA, 2001).
Table-8. Commonly Recognized Citrus Groups and Their Species Group Acid Group 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. 1. 1. Common Name Citron Lemon Rough lemon (Jatti Khatti) Kharna Khatta Lime Thahiti or Persion lime Sweet lime Sour lime Myrtle-leaf orange Bergamot orange Japanese summer grapefruit Sweet orange Chakotra Grapefruit Santara Satsuma mandarin Willow-leaf mandarin Cleopatra mandarin King of Kunembo Tangerin Ichang papeda Yusu of Japan Khasi papeda Melanesian papeda Mauritious papeda Alemow Rangapur lime Mediterranean limette Kitchi and Guntur sour orange Calamondin Indian wild orange Gajanimna of India Muntala Tinpate suntala Mandarin lemon Scientific Name Citrus medica Lin. C. limon (Lin.) Burm C. jambhiri Lush. C. karna Raf. C. aurantifolia Swing.(Lin) C. latifolia Tanaka C. lemmettoides Tanka) C. aurantium Lin. C. myrtifolia Raff. * C. bergamia Risso. (C. limon x C. aurantium)* C. natsudaidai Hayata C. sinensis (Lin.) Osbeck C. maxima (=C. grandis) Osbeck C. paradisi Macf. C. reticulata Blanco C. ubshiu Marc. C. deliciosa Tenore C. rashni Tanaka C. nobilis Loureiro. (C. reticulata x C. sinensis) C. tangerine Hort. C. inchangensis Swing. C. junos Siebold C. latipes Swing. C. macroptera Montr. C. histrix DC. C. macrophylla Wester C. limonia Osbeck * C. limetta Risso. (Lemon x Lime) C. maderaspatana Tanaka C. madurensis Loureiso C. indica Tanaka C. penevesiculata Tanaka (Fortunella japonica Swing/F. margorita) (Poncirus trifoliate (Lin.) Corr.) C. reticulata or Var Austera or C. aurantifolia x C. reticulate)* Citrus madurensis Lour. (C. mtis Blanco) (C. reticulate Var. austera x Fortunnela sp)* (Poncirus trifolia x Citrus sinensis)* (Poncirus trifoliate x C. sinensis) x Fortunella margarita*

Orange Group

Pumello Group Mandarin Group

Papeda Group

Other Species

Kumquat Trifoliate Lemon Calamondin Citrange Citrangequat

1. Kalamansi

Source: Bal, J. S. 1997. Fruit growing. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, India. 425 p. Rajput, C. B. S and R. S. Haribabu, 1999. Citriculture. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, India. 368 p. *Doubtful Classification

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Mandarin (Suntala) is an indigenous fruit of Nepal and grown by its local name in different places. At present, Mandarin (Citrus reticulata), Junar (Citrus sinensis), Acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia), and Hill lemon (Citrus pseudolemon) are cultivated in commercial scale. The other citrus fruits like Pumello (Citrusgrandis), Rough lemon (Citrus jambhiri), Sour orange (Citrus aurantium), Sweet lime (Citrus limettioides), Grapefruit (Citrus paradise), Calamondin (Citrus madurensis), Kumquat (Fortunella japonica) are found growing in homestead gardens. There is a vast scope of growing citrus crops in the country. Total area, productive area and production and productivity of commonly grown citrus i.e. mandarin, junar and lime are presented in Tables (9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14).
Table -9. Total Mandarin Production Area (ha) by Developmental Regions (1996/97 to 2000/01) Year 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 Eastern 2273 2469 2635 2726 3025 Central 1804 1927 2037 2137 2316 Western 3225 3480 3676 3915 4343 Mid-western Far-western 1257 1333 1434 1563 1767 588 655 726 761 826 Total 9130 9864 10509 11103 12275

Table -10. Mandarin Productive Area (ha) by Developmental Regions (1996/97 to 2000/01) Year 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 Eastern 1423 1525 1641 1713 1806 Central 1044 1096 1157 1220 1287 Western 1870 2083 2203 2327 2454 Mid-western Far-western 735 782 841 887 936 346 377 408 440 464 Total 5418 5863 6250 6588 6946

Table -11. Mandarin Production (mt) by Developmental Regions in Nepal (1996/97 to 2000/01) Year 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 Eastern 15526 16758 18243 19055 20173 Central 10814 11379 12092 13340 14099 Western 20696 22750 24051 25384 26788 Mid-western Far-western 7068 7492 8227 8666 9102 3246 3715 4041 4379 4634 Total 57350 62094 66654 70821 74796

The mandarin group includes all types of loose skin oranges locally called as santala. The fresh fruits are used for table purposes, juice is excellent for drinking and processed dry powder is marketed under various names, which is used for making orange juice, orange drinks etc.

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Flowering starts from March, which lasts for about a month and need of pollinators is critical for setting good fruits and higher productivity. The sweet orange (tight skin orange) commonly known as mosambi is another important citrus fruit in the country. It requires dry and semi-arid conditions coupled with distinct summer and winter with low annual precipitation. In general, low humidity and severe winter result in good color development and external appearance in fruits whereas high humidity favors thin skin and plentiful juice.
Table -12. Junar Area and Production by Development Regions in Nepal (2000/2001) Regions Eastern Central Western Mid-western Far-western Total Total area (ha) 664 2605 496 226 404 4395 Productive area (ha) 444 1442 197 113 243 2439 Production (mt) 4853 17725 1894 1084 2290 27846 Yield (mt/ha) 10.93 12.29 9.61 9.59 9.42 11.42

Source: HMG/N. 2000/2001. Annual Report. Citrus Development Division, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. 48 p.

Table -13. Kagati Area and Production by Development Regions in Nepal (2000/2001) Regions Eastern Central Western Mid-western Far-western Total Total area (ha) 1273 653 723 352 231 3232 Productive area (ha) 758 411 440 208 151 1968 Production (mt) 5933 3206 3175 1555 1079 14948 Yield (mt/ha) 7.83 7.80 7.22 7.48 7.12 7.60

Source: HMG/N. 2000/2001. Annual Report. Citrus Development Division, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. 48 p.

Table -14. Nibuwa Area and Production by Development Regions in Nepal (2000/2001) Regions Eastern Central Western Mid-western Far-western Total Total area (ha) 174 91 187 76 70 598 Productive area (ha) 131 66 123 55 47 422 Production (mt) 1195 515 506 404 336 2956 Yield (mt/ha) 9.12 7.80 4.11 7.35 7.15 7.00

Source: HMG/N. 2000/2001. Annual Report. Citrus Development Division, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. 48 p.

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The mid-hill region (900 1400 masl) of Nepal, which accounts about 1.5 million ha is quite suitable for citrus cultivation. Mandarin, Junar, Acid lime, Lemon, Hill lemon, Rough lemon, Sour orange, Citron, etc. are the important citrus crops of this region. Lime and Lemons are also grown in Terai region of the country. Of the total area under citrus cultivation, 58%, 21%, 17%, and 4% are covered by Mandarin, Junar, Acid lime, and other citrus, respectively (MOA, 1997). Dhankuta in Eastern development region; Sindhuli, Ramechhap, Kavre and Dhading in Central development region; and Tanahu and Syngja in Western development region (7 districts) produce more than one-third of the total national citrus production. Some well known pockets for commercial cultivation of Mandarin include Sankhuwasabha, Dhankuta, Bhojpur, Kavre, Dhading, Gorkha, Lamjung, Tanahu, Kaski, Syngja, Gulmi, Sallyan, and Dailekh while Sindhuli and Ramechhap are famous for Junar cultivation. The area and production of citrus is increasing and substantial increase in area and production is quite encouraging. The total increment in production of citrus fruit since 1975 is about 600%. But the yield per ha (productivity) is low in comparison with other citrus producing countries. At present, more area is being brought into cultivation with targeted increase of the area of citrus production by 130% by 2015 AD (APP, 1995). This can be possible only by making citrus cultivation a profitable enterprise to the farmers through the adoption of scientific management of growing and maintaining healthy orchards, undertaking planting of superior varieties and maintaining diversity of citrus crops and their pollinators with minimization of post harvest losses. Efforts are needed take care of pollinators and maintaining diversity to increase the production and productivity of citrus fruits to meet the increasing demand for home consumption as well as exports. 4.2 Production Constraints In Nepal, the major problems in citrus growing faced by the farmers include: low productivity; problem of pollination and pollinators (which has been forgotten by all); lack of transport facility; poorly organized marketing channels; and citrus pests and citrus decline. Citrus Development Division (HMGN, 2001) have recognized some production constraints and suggested preventive or curative measures (Table 15). Although citrus tree blooms heavily, a small portion of flowers produce mature fruits, i.e. out of nearly 4500 flowers buds of lemon tree, 50% set fruit and only 7% of these fruits reach full maturity. In case of sweet orange, only 0.2 to 2% of the total flowers finally produce mature fruits.

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Table-15. Main Problems of Citrus and Suggested Measures (2000/2001) SN 1 Problems/Constraints Poor Sanitation and Tip Drying Suggested Measures Removal of pest infested, dried branches and Bordo-mixture painting. Prevention of other creepers climbing on the tree. No intercropping up to one meter away around the plant from its spread. Spraying Bordo-mixture at the time of new twig coming. 2 3 Mealybugs and Scales Fruitflies Spraying Dimethoate (Rogor 25 EC) and Endosulfan (Thiodan 35 EC) 1.5 teaspoonful per liter water during the time of new shoot sprouting Ploughing and interculture operation in winter and soil application of 510 gm Malathion dust per tree. Spraying Dimethoate (Rogor 25 EC) and Endosulfan (Thiodan 35 EC) 2 teaspoonful per liter water per tree during the time of new shoots coming and then after fruit setting. Collection and destruction of damaged and dropped fruits. 4 5 6 Citrus Gummosis Fertilization Nursery Seedlings Removing barks at the damaging site, spraying and pasting Bordo-paste. Use of balanced fertilizers i.e. 40-50 kg FYM, 557 gm Urea, 750 gm DAP and 1000 gm Potash per tree in winter before new shoot coming Timely top dressing and spraying Urea to seedlings in case of nutrient deficiency.

Source: HMG/N. 2000/2001. Annual Report. Horticulture Center, Kritipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. 29 p.

Research has indicated that minimum 2.3 m2 of the leaf area is needed to produce one kg of fruits in nine year old sweet orange tree for which good citrus variety and its proper management in terms of fertilization, timely irrigation and requirement of pollinators seems critical for healthy growth of plants and high quality fruit production (Tomiyasu, 1998). An efficient marketing mechanism that provides an opportunity to get a reasonable farm gate price, an incentive for increased production cannot be ignored in this endeavor. Major constraints gleaned through the literature and farmers feelings are listed below:

Absence of production of disease free planting materials on commercial scale and its certification. Citrus canker and Phytophthora are serious problems which are spread from nursery to field due to poor nursery management and absence of certification for disease free planting materials.

Heavy citrus decline in citrus plantation areas in many parts of the country. Poor drainage and poor irrigation facility with many farmers in citrus growing pockets. Imbalance fertilizer and nutritional deficiency of major and micro nutrients i.e. Zn, N, Ca. Poor handling of citrus fruits and lack of organized and regulated marketing system. Prevalence of disease and insect pests in commonly grown citrus cultivars. Indiscriminate use of pesticides causing health hazards and environmental pollution.

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5.0 POLLINATORS AND POLLINATION REQUIREMENTS Insects are viewed from the harmful perspectives and aimed at killing them through several means including indiscriminate use of deadly chemicals. If good judgments are made keeping views on sustainable crop production, natural balance and pollution free environment, their beneficial aspects are immense. One of them is that insects provide pollination service to plants. Of the total pollination activities, over 80% is performed by insects. Lack of pollinators causes decline in fruit and seed production (Partap, 2001). Self-incompatible and cross-pollinated crops require pollinating service of efficient pollinators. Self-pollinating crops also benefit from insect pollination because such pollinated crops produce higher yields with good quality fruits. Insects including honeybees are unquestionably the main pollinating agents for many crop plants. Their role in pollinating vast array of flowering plants and maintaining natural diversity is beyond the imagination of poor farmers and even different scientists are in dilemma. Over the last five decades, considerable research has improved production practices i.e. adding nutrients, applying a number of chemical controls for pests (fungicides, insecticides, herbicides), as well as implementing other cultural practices demanded by the crops themselves to the environment conditions under which they might ever increase yields and quality. Often forgotten, however, has been the study on the effects of pollination and pollination practices on crops because it posses more difficult to ascertain results. However, the practices, especially those surrounding application of pesticides, are now reaching points of limited and in some cases, diminished returns. It is, therefore, fitting to reexamine the role of pollination as a practice whose time has come. Some pollination research was accomplished at those rare times when apiculturist and crop specialist could work together. In 1970s, pollination research was becoming more important. Some twelve years later at the Tenth Pollination Conference, Carbondale, Illinois there was evidence of new trends in research, focusing principally on commercial hybrid plant production, ignoring traditional agricultural crops that demanded greater role of pollinators. Pollinating citrus; a number of studies over the years have tackled the problem. However, much remains to be done and controversy continues about the pollination potential of bees and possible management strategies required to ensure adequate pollination of the citrus crop. It is difficult to issue hard and fast recommendations about citrus pollination for a number of reasons. There exist a number of citrus varieties and more are being developed all the time. Each has its own characteristics that must be addressed in order to assure adequate pollination. Recommendations for grapefruit will differ from limes which will differ from oranges. In addition, a good many variables exist under field conditions which often do not mirror those of controlled experiments. A host of plant-environment-pollinator interactions also comes into play, many of which are not well understood. Increasing knowledge about both plant communities and pollinator populations 21

can also change the focus of recommendations and research priorities. Finally, economic considerations may also dictate that issues of relatively small importance in the past may become overriding concerns in the future. There are a growing number of citrus varieties which require cross pollination because they are self-incompatible. Furthermore, a positive linear relationship between fruit size and number of seeds per fruit and where cross pollination is required, use of honey bees remains the most consistent, effective and economical means of ensuring adequate yields. Some studies have shown great significance pollination service of insect pollinators in citrus crops: Citrus can be infected by a number of insect pests and diseases but good cultural practices are all that is required to keep insects and diseases to a minimum and take their benefit in pollination. Shading of the petals and stamens in the no bee cage was slower than in the cage with bees thereby bringing uniformity in flowering and early fruiting, pollination occurred shortly after flower opening in the bee cage, after which the stigma changed color to brown. In the no bee cage, the stigma remained cream colored and apparently receptive at least four days. The pollen-less flowers of Washington Navel are well known for their ability to set parthenocarpic fruits, but excluding pollinating insects resulted decreased production by as much as 86 percent. Orange tree pollinated by bees produced four times as much as trees isolated from bees. Wafa and Ibrahim (1960) obtained 31 percent increase in fruit set, 22 percent increase in fruit weight, 33 percent more juice and 36 percent more seeds from fruits on orange trees visited by bees than on trees from which bees were excluded which indicate that cross-pollination influence fruit set. The value of citrus as a source of pollen is influenced by the kind involved. Less than 1 percent of the bees foraging on Satsuma mandarin carried pollen loads as compared to 95 percent on Hassaku orange. In fact, citrus is not considered as an excellent source of pollen, but honey. Citrus crops generally yield nectar copiously. Some blossoms contained 1.5 bee loads of nectar, averaging 20 microleters compared to 0.8 to 2.4 microleters per blossom for an alfalfa flower which is also an important nectar source. Because of the large amount and superior quality of honey that citrus blossoms produce, many beekeepers place their colonies in or near the groves and earn additional income from honey as well. In grapefruit open pollinated flowers set about twice as many seeds, but more importantly four times as many fruit as selfed flowers. Duncan grapefruit is preferred by canners in spite of its seeds. The difference in fruit set could be of economical importance. Lemon trees caged without bees produced 42.5 percent less than open pollinated trees, whereas the trees caged with bees produced only 10 percent less indicating that bees

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contribute by distributing the self-pollen on the tree and other pollinators including bees played significant role in pollination irrespective of self- or cross-pollinated varieties. Open pollinated flowers of sweet lime set fruit 80 to 100 percent, but only 40-60 percent emasculated and hand pollinated flower set indicating that strong pollinator activity might increase fruit set and total production of sweet limes. Pummelo varieties grown commercially are self-incompatible. Bees or other insects are necessary for proper pollination and setting of fruit whether a cultivar is self-fertile or selfsterile. Growing number of citrus varieties are known to be self-incompatible, and hybrid types with such cultivars an appropriate pollen supply and pollinating agents is needed. Mchedlishvili (1962) showed the importance of insect pollination in citrus by observing at varying distance from the apiary. Near the apiary, 42.5 percent of flowers set and 14.6 percent fruits were harvested. At 150 m from the apiary, 29.3 percent of the flowers set and 10.6 percent harvested while at 350 m distance, only 13.6 percent of the flowers set and 5 percent were eventually harvested. In addition hybrid complex are dependent upon or greatly benefited from insect pollination (Table 16). Hence, almost all citrus crops and their cultivars are benefited from insect pollination. Considerable attention has been given to citrus pollination recently. It has become increasingly clear that the pollination needs of a crop species varies greatly with the locality and cultivar concerned, so ideally pollination investigations are necessary in each general locality where crops are grown. In the developed countries, insect pollination has increased considerably during the past few decades and arrangements for insect pollination are now part of standard management practices. In the developing countries like Nepal, pollination and pollinators are completely forgotten by everyone- policy makers, researchers, extension workers, and farmers. Rather it is just opposite that farmers are complaining loss of crops due to bees and other pollinators considering them as crop pests. Even though beekeeping is known for honey production as well as pollination services to crops, the later has received no attention in the beekeeping research and development. Beekeepings important service of pollination has not only been underplayed by the planners, government authorities and also the agriculturists but also ignored altogether. Discovering potential pollinators, devising management techniques and increasing their population for commercial exploitation would help conserve naturally occurring pollinators, utilize them in pollination service thereby increasing quality production and productivity of fruit crops in the pollution free environment.

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Table -16. Commonly Recognized Citrus Hybrids Citrus Fruit Mandarin lemon Calamondin Citrange Citrangequat Mandarin orange Bergamot orange Citrangidin Citrangor Cicitrange Citrumelo Citrandarin Citremon Citradias Citrumquat Procimequat Limequat Orangequat Eremolemon Eremaorange Eremoradias Citrangermor Lemmonage Lemonime Lemandrin Tangor Tangelo Hybrid Between Hybrid of (C. reticulata or Var Austera or C. aurantifolia x C. reticulata) Hybrid (C. madurensis) of C. mitis with (C. reticulata Var. austera x F. sp) Hybrid of (P. trifolia x C. sinensis) Hybrid of (P. trifoliat x C. sinensis) x F. margarita Hybrid (C. nobilis) of (C. reticulata x C. sinensis) Hybrid (C. bergamia) of (C. aurantium, Var. bergamia, C. limon x C. aurantium) Hybrid (C. mitis) of (C. sinensis x C. madurensis) Backcross hybrid of (P. trifolia x C. sinensis) x C. sinensis Backcross hybrid of (P. trifolia x C. sinensis) x P. trifoliate Hybrid of (P. trifolia x C. paradisi) Hybrid of (P. trifolia x C. reticulate) Hybrid of (P. trifolia x C. lemon) Hybrid of (P. trifolia x C. aurantium) Hybrid of (P. trifolia x F. japonica or F. margarita) Hybrid of (F. japonica x C. aurantifolia cv. Mexican) x F. hindsii Hybrid of (C. aurantifolia x F. japonica) Hybrid of (C. reticulata cv. Satsuma x F. japonica x F. cv. Meiwa) Hybrid of (E. glauca x C. lemon cv. Meyer) Hybrid of (E. glauca x C. sinensis) Hybrid of (E. glauca x C. aurantium) Hybrid of (E. glauca) x (P. trifolia x C. sinensis) Hybrid of (C. lemon x C. sinensis) Hybrid of (C. limon x C. aurantifolia) Hybrid of (C. limon x C. reticulata) Hybrid of (C. sinensis x C. reticulata) Hybrid of (C. reticulata x C.paradisi), Pear Tangelo

Rajput, C. B. S and R. S. Haribabu, 1999. Citriculture. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, India. 368 p.

5.1 Pollination The plants fall under the category of being self-pollinated or cross pollinated for the purpose of reproduction. The former are self fertile and does not need external help to set the fruits or seeds. Cereals come under this category that occupies 15 percent of the crops. The remaining 85 percent crops are cross pollinated as they need help of external agencies for fertilization i.e. transfer of male (anthers) part to the female (stigma) part. The external agencies may be wind, water, insects, birds etc. But the insects are the most abundant and efficient agents of pollination. Again among

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insects, it is well established that honeybees are the most efficient pollinators. Since most of the crops are dependent on or benefited by honeybees, beekeeping has to play more significant role in crop pollination than in honey production. 5.2 Significance of Pollinators in Citrus Crop Pollination In the past, flowering plant species were not concentrated in a particular locality, therefore natural pollinators population was ample for pollination. But modernization of agriculture through monoculture, over-enthusiastic use of inputs like fertilizers, irrigation, pesticides etc. has left the population of wild pollinators per unit area very scanty. Moreover, over reliance on insecticides (resulting in death of natural pollinators) and clean cultivation (destroying their natural food sources and habitats) further depleted their population. Thus we are left with only honeybees as pollinators which can be brought at any time in any numbers to the target sites where thousands of foragers go about their natural work of pollination. Some citrus species and honeybee pollinators are presented in Table 17. Their specially equipped body and large working hours on the crops coupled with additional benefits of honey and other bee products make them ideal pollinating agents.
Table 17. Citrus Species and Honeybees Pollinators in Nepal SN 1 2 3 4 5 6 Citrus Sweet lime Sour orange Sweet orange Grapefruit Mandarin Citron Scientific name Citrus limettoides Citrus aurantium Citrus csinensis Citrus paradisi Citrus reticulata Citrus medica Flowering Apr-May Apr-May Apr-May Mar-Apr Mar-apr Mar-Apr Source NP NP NP NP NP NP Abundance + + + + + + Bee species DFIM DFIM DFIM DFIM DFIM DFIM

+ Abundance in mid hills, D= Dorsata, F=Florea, C= Cerana, M= Mellifera

Citrus species are often cross pollinated and require pollinators. Most of them depend on pollinators for good pollination and expected yield from pollinators exceeds more than 400% compared to without pollinators. The total area of citrus plantation in the country is 19018 ha which require 57055 - 95090 strong bee colonies (based on general recommendation of 3-5 colonies per ha). Present production and productivity of citrus in Nepal is 115067 mt and 10.20 mt / ha, respectively which is far below the potential production level in comparison to developed country USA with 36.9 mt/ha (FAO, 1999). Proper management practices and timely arrangement of pollinators for healthy plant growth, vigorous flowering and good pollination help exploit the potential yield up to 40 mt/ha thereby adding farmers, income fourfold. Furthermore, citrus farmers obtain additional 100 kg of honey harvest per colony per ha valued Rs. 20,000. 25

Co-evolution of flowering plants and bees started about 225 million years ago and their mutalistic relationship continues (Price, 1975). Stone carvings and bricks from the palace of Assyrian kings as early as 800 B.C. depict the significance of pollen and pollination of fruits. Honeybees are the center of attraction to mankind from the beginning for their pollination services and beehive products. About 1/3rd of the total human diet comes from bee pollinated crops and pollination value worth about 143 times than honey production (Mishra 1998). Of the total pollination activities, insects alone perform over 80% and bees contribute nearly 80% of the total insect pollination, and therefore, they are considered the best pollinators (Robinson et. al., 1989). Honeybee pollination enhances quality and yield of seed and fruits. Lack of sufficient number of suitable pollinators causes decline in fruit and seed production (Partap, 2001). Nepal is a treasure house of honeybee and plant species well distributed in terai, midhills and highhills (Woyke, 1999). This wide diversity of honeybee and flowering plant species greatly influence crop pollination and bee-hive production. 5.3 Honeybee Pollinators The honeybee is unquestionably the primary pollinating agent of citrus; wind is not a major factor. Other pollinating insects are minor. Beekeepers readily place their colonies near citrus groves for the delicious honey the bees store and citrus specialists frequently intimate that an ample supply of bees is always in the groves (Krezdorn 1972). Moffett and Rodney (1971a) showed this may not be true. They observed an average of slightly less than one bee per 100 blossoms at Yuma, Ariz., and concluded that the population was so low that growers of most orchards needing insect pollination should have rented colonies for that purpose. During the peak bloom, the ratio was much less than one bee per 100 flowers. Such a population would not be likely to visit individual flowers more often than about once per hour. By contrast, Mchedlishvili (1962) reported 12 bee visits per blossom per hour. P. M. Packard (personal commun., 1972), State apiary inspector for Florida, estimated that only 220,000 colonies of honey bees were in the prime citrus area during bloom time in 1972 about one colony per 4 acres. He stated distribution is not systematic, with some areas overcrowded with bees and others having practically none. Butcher (1955) observed a zonal production effect in relation to distance of 'Minneola' tangelos from the apiary with the most marked effect 200 to 300 feet away. However, Robinson (1958) stated that honey bees worked equally well in all directions and were evenly spread to 400 feet. Honey bees collect both pollen (if it is produced) and nectar from citrus. The flower is so constructed that if the bee has visited a previous pollen-producing flower, some pollen is likely to be transferred to the next stigma visited.

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Depending upon the cultivars involved, the results of insect pollination may have no effect, increase the number of fruits set, increase the size of the fruit, cause seed to be present, increase the number of seeds, or cause an overloading of the tree. Foraging behavior of different species of honeybee to citrus differed significantly at different intervals of day and flowering stages of the plant.

Higher number of Apis mellifera foraged on citrus (3.1/ m2/min.) and they also visited many other plant species showing their superiority in Terai Region. Apis dorsata also foraged citrus. Citrus flowers were preferred by Apis mellifera followed by Apis dorsata specially for pollen. Their number was higher in the early morning hours and then declined afterwards.

Apis cerana never visited the flowers of citrus in presence of other species. All three species of bees A. dorsata, A. mellifera and A. cerana collected more pollen in the morning hours and nectar afterwards. This finding shows that Apis mellifera is the most active and an efficient pollinator for wide range of plant diversities and honey producer for Terai regions of Nepal. The situation is still serious in places where the natural pollinators are inadequate and inefficient. In general, foraging activities of bees was higher during first half of the day due to the availability of pollen and nectar (Mazaffar and Ahmed, 2000)

Presence of Apis mellifera displaced and reduced the number of Apis cerana bees from the resources (Pratap, 1989). Honeybees show preference to more attractive floral rewards neglecting the less attractive ones (Free,1980). When 2 or more than 2 species of bee compete for the same floral sources, the stronger and more competitive species displace the weaker one from the resources and geographic areas affecting crop pollination. 5.4 Pollination Recommendations and Practices Little work has been done on the number of bee visits per flower, or the effect of cross-visitation between cultivars in relation to fruit set on citrus cultivars either dependent upon or benefited by bee pollination. Some recommendations have been made, without support or data, on colonies per acre and suggested placement. Oppenheimer (1948) suggested bringing bees in, if they were not present, to pollinate 'Clementine' mandarins in Palestine. He did not indicate how many bees should be brought in or where the colonies should be placed. The placement of colonies of bees in citrus orchards for pollination has often been recommended. Baldwin (1916) without concrete data to support his statement recommended five colonies per acre. Van Horn and Todd (1954) recommended one colony per acre of 'Clementines'. The Florida

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Agricultural Extension Service (1961) recommended the use of bees and pollenizer cultivars to increase the number and size of tangelos. Robinson and Krezdorn (1962) recommended a minimum of one strong colony of honey bees per acre of 'Orlando' tangelos. Soost (1963) stated that most commercial kinds of citrus set adequate crops without cross-pollination, but where insect pollination is needed "one hive per 2 acres may be sufficient although this is not certain." Zavrashnli (1967b) stated that one colony per 2.5 acres doubled the crop. His research dealt with 'Washington Navels', 'Novogrusinskii' lemons, and 'Unshiu' tangerines. Haynie (1968) recommended one colony per 2 acres, the colonies in groups and properly spaced, for cultivars benefiting from bee pollination. There seems to be no uniformity in these recommendations, probably because each dealt with only one or a few cultivars in different areas of the citrus world and under different conditions. The weakness of the recommendations is that there is no indication given as to the relative bee population per unit of flowers and also no relation is shown between colonies per acre and bees per flower. For most efficient pollination of citrus, the meager data indicate that if bees are needed they should be distributed at the rate of one-half to five colonies per acre at about 1/4- to l/10-mile intervals. Consideration in the recommendation should be given to vigor of the colonies, other colonies in the area, acres of citrus, and other nearby plants attractive to bees, size of the citrus trees, and blooms per tree. For greatest benefit, the colonies probably should be present throughout the citrus flowering period. Beekeepers place their bees near citrus groves for the honey they obtain; however, these colonies may not be placed strategically or insufficient numbers for most effective pollination of all areas of a particular grove. The grower would profit most by arranging for the appropriate number of strong colonies properly placed and managed for citrus pollination although the honey obtained could be a factor in relation to locations and pollination fees. The citrus grower can gain far more than the beekeeper from such an arrangement. Some southern beekeepers are mainly in the business to sell bees. Packages, nucs and queen sales make up the largest percentage of their income. While there are small pockets that have plentiful bumblebees, squash bees and other pollinators, these bees are also in decline as well due to loss of habitat and food sources, and pesticide misuse. Such pollinators can be encouraged, not only by care in insecticide applications, but also by habitat and feed improvements for their sake. Hedgerows can be left a little wild. Important feed plants like sweet clover, vetch, buckwheat or goldenrod can be planted or allowed to bloom in some areas. Herbicides can be a good tool to keep blooming plants out of insecticide-use areas, but widespread use can starve out pollinators. Insects occasionally trouble citrus and may sporadically scar the skin of the fruit, but rarely do these pests render the fruit inedible or threaten 28

the health of the plant. In fact, citrus can be grown organically without much concern. Insects may be found on citrus at various times of the year, but the amount of damage done and the length of time present does not justify the time or expense involved to control them. If the trees are healthy, pests are seldom life threatening and as the citrus plant develops, insects become even less of a problem. Both pests and pollinators that visit citrus flowers are presented in Table 18a, 18b, 18c.
Table-18a. Common Arthropod Visitors of Citrus Species
SN 1 2 3 4 5 Homoptera Class/Order Acari Family Eriophytidae Tarsonemidae Tenuipalpidae Tetranichidae Aleyrodidae Common name Citrus bud mite Citrus rust mite Broad mite Citrus flat mite Citrus red mite Citrus blackfly Wooly whitefly Citrus whitefly Berry whitefly Spirea aphid Black citrus aphid White wax scale Florida wax scale Pink wax scale Brown soft scale Citricola scale Mediterran black scale California red scale Florida red scale Dictyospermum scale Purple scale Chaff scale Rufous scale Citrus snow scale Arrowhead scale Cottony cushion scale Citrus mealybug Citrophulus mealybug Citrus psylla Green citrus leafhopper Scientific name Eriophyes sheldoni Ewing Phyllocoptruta oleivora (Ashm.) Polyphagotarsonemus latus(Banks) Brevipalpusphoenicis (Geijsk.) Panonychus citri (McGreg.) Aleurocanthus woglumi Ashby Aleurothrixus floccosus (Maskell) Dialeurodes citri (Ashm.) Parabemisia myricae (Kuwan.) Aphis spiraecola Patch Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer de Fonsco) Ceroplastes destructor Newstead Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock Ceroplastes rubens Maskell Coccus hesperidum Lin. Coccus pseudomagnoliarum (Kuw.) Saissetia oleae (Olivier) Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) Chrysomphalus aonidium (Lin.) Chrusomphalus dictyospermi (Morg) Lepidosaphes beckii (Newman) Parlatoria pergandii Comstock Selenaspidus articulatus (Morg) Unaspis citri (Comstock) Unaspis yanonensis (Kuwana) Icerya purchasi Maskell Planococcus citri (Risso) Pseudococcuscitriculus Green Trioza erytreae (del Guer.) Empoasca citrusaTheron

6 7

Aphididae Coccidae

Diaspididae

9 10 11 12

Margarodidae Pseudococcidae Psyllidae Cicadellidae

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Table-18b. Common Orthropod Visitor of Citrus Species

SN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Diptera Class/Order Hemiptera Family Coreidae Pentatomidae Thysanoptera Thripidae Orthroptera Coleoptera Acrididae Bostrychidae Buprestidae Cerambycidae Chrysomelidae Curculionidae Tephritidae Common name Leaf-footed bug Citrus green stinkbug Western flower thrips Citrus thrips American grasshopper Black giant bostrichid Citrus bark borer Citrus trunk borer Black & red leaf miner Citrus root weevil Citrus snout beetle Mexican fruit fly Oriental fruit fly Queensland fruit fly Mediterranean fruit fly Leaf-cutting ant Argentine ant Citrus looper Citrus leaf miner Bark-eating borer Fruit-piercing moth False codling moth Lemon butterfly Citrus moth borer Honeydew moth Carob moth Orange totrix Citrus flower moth Citrus rind borer Scientific name Leptoglossus phyllopus (Lin.) Rhynchocorris humeralis (Thun.) Frankliniella occidentalis (Perg.) Scirtothrips citri (Moul.) Schistocerca Americana (Drury) Apatemonachus Fab. Agrilusoccipitalis Eschs. Melanausterchinensis Foster Thryscoryssa citri Maulik Pachnaeus litus (Germar) Sciobius granosus Fahraeus Anastrepha ludens (Loew) Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) Bactrocera tyroni (Frogg.) Ceratitis capitata (wied.) Atta sexdens (Lin.) Iridomyrmex humilis (Mayr) Ascotis selenaria reciprocaria (Walk) Phyllocnistis citrella Stain Indrabela quadrinotata (Walker) Othreis cjeta (Cramer) Cryptophlebia leucotreta (Meyr) Papilio demolens demolens Lin. Citripestris sagittiferella Moore Cryptoblabes gnidiella (Milli) Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller) Argyrotaenia citrana (Fernald0 Prays citri Milli. Prays endocarpa Meyrick

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Hymenoptera Formicidae Lepidoptera Geometridae Lyonetiidae Metarbelidae Noctuidae Olethreutidae Papilionidae Pyralidae

19 20

Tortricidae Yponomeutidae

Wise growers will plan early and keep in touch with their beekeeper for progress reports. Late winter weather can greatly affect the bees, so it's also a good idea to monitor weather, wherever the bees are staying. Long rainy spells can reduce the bees' food supply; and late freezes can actually kill brood. Bees dwindle during winter and build in the spring. It is important that bees to build up FOR the crops to be pollinated, not build up ON them.

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Table-18c. Common Arthropod Visitor of Citrus Species

SN 1 2 3 4 5 6 Class/Order Hymenoptera Family Collectidae Halictidae Andrenidae Melittidae Megachilidae Anthophoridae Collectus sp, Hylacus sp, Halictus sp, Lasioglossum sp, Nomia sp, Nomioides sp, Sphecodes sp, Systropha sp, Andrena sp, Ctenoplectra sp, Anthidium sp, Anthidiellum sp, Anthocopa sp, Chelicodama sp, Coelioxys sp, Hariodes sp, Lithurgus sp, Osmia sp. Parevaspis sp, Stelis sp, Amegilla sp, Ammobates sp, Anthophora sp, Braunsapis sp, Ceratina sp, Elaphropoda sp, Epeleus sp, Habropoda sp, Melecta sp, Morgania sp, Nomada sp, Parahophites sp, Pithitis sp, Protomielissa sp, Proxylocopa sp, Tetralonia sp, Tetraloniella sp, Tyreussp, Xylocopa sp. Agrobombus sp., B. affinis, B. albopleuralis, B. americanorum, B. asiaticus, B. auricomus, B. borealis, B. distinguendus, B. fervidus, B. fraternus, B. haemorrhoidalis, B. hortorum, B. humalis, B. humtii, B. lapidaries, B. lucorum, B. occidentalis, B. pascournum, (hartum), B. pratorum, B. pyrosoma, B. ruderatus, B. rufocinctus, B. simillimus, B. sonorous, B. subterraneus, B. sylvarum, B. terrestris (lucorum), B. terricola, B. vegans, Bombos nevadensis, Hortobombus sp, Lapidoriobombus sp, Terrestribombus sp, Apis sp, Psithyrus sp, Trigona sp, Scientific name

Apidae

The pollination requirements of the different kinds of citrus vary considerably and range from parthenocarpy through self-compatibility to self-incompatibility. Generally, most citrus are "selffruitful" and do not require bees for pollination. Experiments conducted overseas suggest that both fruit set and fruit size on some citrus varieties have been improved with pollination. Unfortunately, the seed content of some fruit also increases. A total of 15 commercial beekeepers, owning 30,881 colonies returned survey forms. A total of 85,586 colony rentals generated $2,759,156 in rental income and the average per colony pollination rental fee (for all beekeepers, for all crops including California almonds) was: $3225. The average commercial colony was placed in 2.77 pollination sets in 1999, for an average per hive rental income of $8930. The average commercial bee operation maintained 2,058 colonies and grossed $183,780 in pollination rental income for 1999. A total of 6 semi-commercial beekeepers returned survey forms: The average per colony pollination rental fee was: $3655. The average semi-commercial colony was placed in 1.2 pollination sets in 1999, for an average per hive rental income of $4385. The average semi-commercial operation maintained 120 colonies and grossed $5,262 in pollination rental income for 1999.

31

6.0 SURVEY FINDINGS 6.1 General Information The average household size of the sampled citrus farmer was 6.5 with higher literacy rate of adult male (69.6%) and illiteracy rate of female (74.2%) while minimum differences among the male and female schooling children (Table 19). The major source of income was from services (military, foreign job and retired persons) followed by citrus farming and other agricultural activities with disparity in gender involvement in services and agriculture activities (Table 20, 21). The study also indicates that citrus farming is associated with higher income families rather than poor subsistence farmers.
Table 19. Family Structure and Education Status of Citrus Farming Households (N=55) SN 1 2 3 Particular Adult literate Adult illiterate Schooling children Total Field survey Table 20. Source of Income and Saving of Citrus Farming Households (N=55) SN 1 2 3 Particular Income (Rs) Total income (Rs) Expenses (Rs) Service 1985000 (39%) Citrus 2416300 (48%) Other Agri 602000 (12%) Others 41500 (1%) Male 64 27 88 179 Female 28 78 75 181 Total 92 105 163 360

5044800 3934800 (78%) 1110000 (22%)

Saving (Rs) Field survey

Table 21. Gender Involvement in Service and Agriculture (N=55) SN 1 2 3 Involvement Government service Private/self employment Agriculture Male 4 20 70 94 Female 1 4 87 92 Total 5 24 157 186

Total Field survey

6.2 Citrus Cultivation and Gender Involvement Farmers planted different species of citrus crops in their farms (Table 22a). Orange was the main citrus grown in commercial scale with an average of nearly 200 plants per citrus farmers while lime was confined in very small scale production and sale. Other citrus crops were grown just for

32

home consumption. Reasons of variety selection and planting by the farmers have been indicated by the technicians (Table 22b). Sapling mortality was highest in Junar (>46%) followed by intermediate in orange (18%) and lime (12%) with no mortality of Nibuwa saplings at the farmers field level. Majority of farmers (84%) sell their fruits through middleman (contractor) because they have no groups and have no access to market (Table 23a). The marketing has been further clarified by the technicians that there is big gap between producers and consumers (Table 23b). Thus farmers have no bargaining power of their produce and are deprived of higher profits. The survey clearly showed a great disparity in gender involvement in citrus farming (Table 24). It also indicated that involvement of male and female varied as per specific activities. Decision making and money handling (orchard site and citrus variety selection, harvesting and marketing fruits, training) was solely on the males possession while womens involvement was even higher than male in some specific field works such as pit filling, weeding, manuring and intercropping. It seems that there ample opportunity of women involvement in citrus farming.
Table 22a. Plantation and Mortality of Citrus Saplings (N=55) SN 1 2 3 4 Orange Lime Junar Nibuwa Total Field survey Table 22b.Technicians Feelings on Citrus Varieties Grown by Farmers with Preference (N=20) SN 1 2 3 4 5 Variety Orange Lime Junar Nibuwa Others Total Field survey Response (No) 17 15 7 5 4 48 Percent 35 31 15 10 9 100 Reasons of Preference Available local variety, high productivity and good market Low pest problem, year-round fruiting and good market High productivity and good market Good market Citrus Planted (No) 12411 553 54 50 13068 Survived (No) 10125 482 29 50 10686 Mortality (%) 18.4 12.8 46.3 0.0 (Avg 10)

33

Table 23a. Fruits Sale by Farmers from Their Orchard (N=55) SN 1 2 3 Through contractor At farm gate and home Others Sale Response (No) 46 6 3 55 Percent 84 10 6 100

Total Field survey

Table 23b. Technicians Responses on Citrus Marketing Channel (N=20) SN 1 2 3 4 Farmer Consumer Farmer Contractor Consumer Farmer Collector Trader Consumer Farmer Contractor Wholesale Retail Consumer Particular Response (No) 4 7 3 5 19 Percent 21 37 16 26 100

Total Field survey

Table 24. Gender Involvement in Citrus Plantation, Fruit Marketing and Money Handling (N=55) SN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Activities Decision to grow crop Decision to resource allocation Orchard site selection Orchard layout Pit preparation Pit filling Weeding Manure application Intercropping in orchard Orchard irrigation Spraying orchard Harvesting fruits Marketing fruits Attending meeting Attending training Handling money Male 51 53 53 54 52 50 51 53 52 53 55 54 54 52 52 52 841 Female 12 8 6 5 28 54 54 55 53 48 5 4 9 50 16 13 420 Total 63 61 59 59 80 104 105 108 105 101 60 58 63 102 68 65 1261

Total Field survey

34

6.3 Orchard Management Citrus farmers have faced various problems such as natural (hailstorms), biological (Insects and disease pests, wild animals) and technical (experiences, skills, training etc) difficulties (Table 25. There is no record of complete failure of crops for past 5-10 years, but majority of the farmers felt losses by unpredicted hailstorms, increasing pests and lack of irrigation facility. More than 50% of the farmers have been practicing control measures of which majority spray different chemicals while a few also apply their indigenous knowledge of pest management techniques (Table 26, 27). However, very few farmers (11%) are aware of harmful effects of pesticides and only few farmers (7%) wait after spray to pick up fruits (Table 28a, 28b, 29). Technicians are better-off than farmers in this regard but have not been transformed to field level.
Table 25. Various Problems Faced by Citrus Farmers (N=55) SN 1 2 3 4 5 6 Natural (Hailstorms) Insects (Bug, borer, leaf miner, fruitfly, aphids etc.) Diseases (Root and fruit rot, fruit drop, scab, decline) Irrigation Wild animals (Hare, monkey etc.) Others (Training, skills, variety etc.) Total Field survey Table 26. Pesticides Used by Farmers in Citrus Orchard (N=55) SN 1 2 3 4 5 Pesticide Dimethoate (Rogor 25 EC) Methyl parathion (Metacid 50 EC) Malathion, Nuvan Carathion Bordeaux mixture Response (No) 5 3 2 1 14 25 Percent 20 12 8 4 56 100 Problem Response (No) 23 23 22 10 3 5 86 Percent 26 26 26 12 4 6 100

Total Field survey

Table 27. Indigenous Knowledge of Pest Control Practiced by Farmers (N=55) SN 1 2 Particular Using indigenous knowledge (Cultural, botanical) Unknown about indigenous knowledge Total Response (No) 7 48 55 Percent 13 87 100

35

Field survey Table 28a. Farmers Awareness on Harmful Effects of Pesticides (N=55) SN 1 2 Particular Aware of symptoms (Headache, eye irritation, cough) Unaware of any symptoms Response (No) 6 49 55 Percent 11 89 100

Total Field survey

Table 28b. Technicians Awareness on Effects of Pesticides on Citrus Pollination (N=20) SN 1 2 Unaware Aware Particular Response (No) 6 14 55 Percent 30 70 100

Total Field survey

Table 29. Waiting Period Followed by Users after Spraying Pesticides (N=55) SN 1 2 Particular Waiting (four weeks or more) Not waiting at all Response (No) 4 51 55 Percent 7 93 100

Total Field survey

6.4 Farmers Awareness on Pollinators Majority of farmers and technicians are not aware of natural pollinators or managed pollination of citrus (Table 30a, 30b, 31a, 31b). More than 90% of the citrus farmers have no idea of pollinator and pollination of citrus and very few citrus farmers (15%) have local bees in hive, which is just for honey production not for managed pollination. Neither farmers are aware of biodiversity conservation and environment protection (Table 32). Farmers have a common feeling that bees or insects suck fruit juice and reduce crop yield.
Table 30a. Farmers Awareness on Pollinators Visiting Citrus Flowers (N=55) SN 1 2 Aware Unaware Particular Response (No) 2 53 55 Percent 4 96 100

Total Field survey

36

Table 30b. Technicians Awareness on Citrus Pollination and Pollinators (N=20) SN 1 2 3 4 Unaware Air Bees Bumblebees Particular Response (No) 15 5 4 3 55 Percent 56 19 15 10 100

Total Field survey

Table 31a. Farmers with Citrus Orchard and Practicing Beekeeping (N=55) SN 1 2 Particular Farmers with beehives (A. cerana in local/modern hive) Farmers without beehives Response (No) 8 47 55 Percent 15 85 100

Total Field survey

Table 31b. Technicians Awareness on Wild Honeybees Visiting Citrus Flowers (N=20) SN 1 2 Unaware Aware Particular Response (No) 15 4 55 Percent 79 21 100

Total Field survey

Table 32. Farmers Awareness on Biodiversity Conservation and Environment Protection (N=55) SN 1 2 Aware Unaware Particular Response (No) 2 53 55 Percent 4 96 100

Total Field survey

6.5 Supports to Citrus and Pollinators Promotion Development of citrus is mainly through the efforts of HMGN and technicians devoted in this sector (Table 33a, 33b). But role of pollinators in citrus pollination and productivity enhancement has completely been forgotten.

37

Table 33a. Supporting Organizations to Establish Citrus Orchard (N=55) SN 1 2 Particular HMGN (DADO, JT, JTA, Ag. Service Center) Farmer Group Response (No) 54 1 55 Percent 98 2 100

Total Field survey

Table 33b. Technicians Suggestions on Citrus Growing and Pollination Promotion (N=20)

SN 1 2 3 4 Not known

Particular Encourage beekeeping Citrus and beekeeping together Citrus, beekeeping and IPM Total

Response (No) 13 7 2 2 24

Percent 53 29 4 4 100

Field survey

Farmers attraction in citrus farming are due to following factors: No problem of selling fruits either at farm (small scale) or at market (commercial High production and income compared to other traditional crops. Low initial investment and low expenses for long-term production. Comparatively low pest problems and high demand of citrus fruits in home and Easy and safe transportation compared to fresh vegetables. scale).

markets. Citrus production especially, orange and lemon can be increased through the promotion of citrus crops and their pollinators. Therefore, integrated approach is best to increase productivity, conserve, natural and managed pollinators and maintaining sound and healthy biodiversity as well. 7.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Initiation of the Horticulture Development Project (HDP, 1985-97) under the technical cooperation of Japan was an important step in fruit development particularly citrus. With the objectives to increase the production of mandarin and sweet orange and thereby increase the cash income and employment opportunity of the farmers, and substitute the import and promote export, citrus priority program was launched in Dhankuta, Sindhuli, Ramechhap, Kaski, and Dailekh districts in 1985. Hill Fruit development Project (HFDP) under loan assistance of Asian Development Bank

38

(ADB/M) was implemented in 11 hill and mountain districts of eastern developmental region during the period of 1988-95. Main thrust of the project was to increase the production of citrus in the mid-hill region. Thirty-five citrus nurseries were established at the private sector for sapling production and distribution (HFDP, 1996). Farmers have increased and some farmers also have been organized in groups. However, productivity is very low and farmers and technicians are not ware of increasing citrus productivity through biodiversity creation, pollinators conservation and maintenance of pollution free environment Therefore, the main focus should be biodiversity conservation and productivity enhancement for poverty alleviation of majority of the hill farmers implementing ecologically and economically sustainable income generating activities with the promotion of pollinators and managed pollination (Figure 1) for which problem identification, exploring potentiality and development of strategies are the key for success that are indicated in Table 34. Apiculture and Citrus Pollination

Honey, Wax, Pollen and Royal Jelly Production

Poverty Alleviation

Pollination and Quality Seed/Fruit Production

Income Generation and Economic Development Figure 1. Biodiversity Conservation and Productivity Enhancement
Table 34. Natural pollinators: Approach to Biodiversity Conservation and Productivity Enhancement
Potentiality Ecological diversity Farming community Constraints Lacking information on flora, crop calendar, and information on pollination Inaccessibility, difficult transportation, poverty, unemployment, ecological degradation Lacking information on pollinators and their performance, and problems of pests and pesticides Traditional beekeeping, honey hunting, Strategies Inventory and floral calendar preparation of flora including high value crops for pollination Training/awareness and promotion of income generating activity integrating beekeeping with high value crop pollination Study of pollinators for productivity and pollination potentiality including pest and pesticide management through IPM approach Appropriate technology development and

Natural pollinators

Technology

39

lacking training, and poor delivery Market potentiality Problem of quality, lacking assured market, price policy

middle level extension workers for better result Quality control and high value product marketing with regulated price policy

However, promotion of indigenous honeybees and other pollinators for biodiversity conservation and productivity enhancement in the mid-hills has been facing serious problems, which requires due consideration:

Health safety and environment aspects are receiving outmost attention and IPM is the aim for a sustainable agriculture (Figure 2). IPM programs through FFS help to mitigate pesticide use, promote sound ecological farming and create pesticide pollution free environment. Successful integration and use of control measures in IPM program depends largely on interdisciplinary working team and their involvement in developing a sound ecological farmers problem oriented IPM program.

No pesticide in orchard Pollinator visits No pollinators in orchard Pesticide sprays

Figure 2. IPM for Pest Management, Conserving Pollinators and Increasing Productivity Honey hunting and massive destruction of indigenous native honeybees is a critical issue that needs to be addressed for indigenous honeybee protection and further multiplication.

Cross pollination
Hybrid vigor

Pest management

Crop protection

Increase production

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Managed pollination of crops that has been largely forgotten part of agriculture requires due attention to increase productivity and diversity of crops and pollinators as well. Indigenous

40

honeybees are the most efficient pollinators and most of the crops are dependent on or benefited by them, beekeeping has to play more significant role in crop pollination for biodiversity conservation and in honey production for income generation. Practical learning of beekeeping for their better management with qualified technician development working in isolation for which authorized institutions including capable INGOs and NGOs are to be brought in the mainstream in building capability. Foraging preference of different pollinators including honeybees to crop pollination and their suitability at different ecological regimes need to be studied. Based on their preference, and efficiency on pollination of selected priority crops their establishment and isolation with species can be maintained in the future. It has been learned from various other high value crop production activities that group mobilization and community development has been proved better for institutionalization of the program and therefore, promotion of indigenous bees and conservation of other pollinators of crops in the hills and the mountains may not be possible in isolation. This rather will develop capability of the local organization to run their activity themselves in the long run. For immediate action, we are left with only honeybees as pollinators, which can be brought at any time in any numbers to the target sites where thousands of foragers go about their natural work of pollination with long term vision of conserving natural pollinators. Specially equipped body and large working hours on the crops coupled with additional benefits of honey and other bee products make them ideal pollinating agents. Again among insects, it is well established that honeybees are the most efficient pollinators. Since most of the crops are dependent on or benefited by honeybees, beekeeping has to play more significant role in crop pollination than in honey production alone.

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8.0 REFERENCES Abrol, D. P. 1991. Conservation of pollinators for promotion of agricultural production in India. J. Anim. Morphol. and Physiol. 38 (1-2):123-139. APP. 1995. Agriculture perspective plan (APP). Agricultural Project Service Center and John Mellor Associates, Inc. NPC/HMGN and ADB, Kathmandu, Nepal. Bal, J. S. 1997. Fruit growing. Kalayani Publishers. New Delhi, India. Baldwin, E. G. Perfect pollination of citrus groves. Gleanings Bee Cult. 44:269-271. Butcher, F. G. 1955. Honeybees as pollinators of Minneola Tangelos. Fla. Hort. Soc. Proc. 68:313. CBS. 2000. Statistical year book of Nepal. National Planning Commission, Central Bureau of Statistics, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal. Cervancia, C. R. and A. C. Manila. 2000. Some aspects on the floral biology and pollination of Calamondin, Citrus madurensis (Lour.). Seventh IBRA Conference on Tropical Bees: Management and Dversity and Fifth Asian Apiculture Association Conference 19-25 March, 2000. Chiang Mai, Thailand. International Bee Research Association, Cardiff, UK. pp 293-294. Cox, J. E. 1974. Citrus. Proc. Fla. Sta. Hort. Soc. 74: 95-104. Crane, E. and P. Walker. 1984. Pollination directory for world crops. Intl. Bee Res. Assoc., London, U.K. DeGrandi-Hoffman, G. 1987. The honeybee pollination component of horticultural crop pollination systems In J. Janick (ed.) Horticultural reviews Vol 9. AVI Publications, New York. pp 237-272. Devenport, T. L. Citrus flowering In J. Janick (ed.) Horticultural Reviews Vol 12. Timber Press Portland, Oregon, USA. pp 349-408. Devies, F. S. 1986. The Naval orange In J. Janick (ed.) Horticultural reviews Vol. 8. Timber Press Portland, Oregon, USA. pp 237-272. FAO. 1993. Citrus fruit- fresh and processed annual statistics. CCP; CI/ST/93- Rome, Italy. Free, J. B. 1993. Insect pollination of crops (2nd edition). Academic Press, London. 684 pp. Jindal, K. K., D. R. Gautam and B. K. Karkara. 1993. Pollination and pollinizers in fruits In K. L. Chadha and O. P. Pareek (eds.) Advances in Horticulture Vol. 1: Fruit crops. Malhotra Pub. House, New Delhi. pp 463-480. Guru-Gharana, K. K. 1997. Poverty situation in Nepal. J. Dev, Loc. Gov. 1(2). Haynie, J. D. 1968. Bees and citrus blooms. Amer. Bee. J. 108:397. HMGN. Economic survey 1998/99. Ministry of Finance. HMGN, Kathmandu, Nepal. HMGN. 2000/01. Annual Report. Citrus Development Division, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. Horn, C. W. and F. E. Todd. 1954. Bee bouquets and better tangerines. Prog. Agri. Ariz. 6:11. Kaini, B. R. 1994. Status of fruit plant genetic resources in Nepal. In: M.P. Upadhaya, H. K. Saiju, B. K. Baniya and M. S. Bista (eds.) Plant genetic resources Nepalese perspective. NARC and IPGRI. NARC, Khumaltar, Kathmandu, Nepal. pp 103-111. Kevan, P. G. and H. G. Baker. 1983. Insects as flower visitors and pollinators. Ann. Rev. Ent. 28:407-453.

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Khan, M. and M. K. H. Chandhri. 1964. Pollination studies in Citrus sinensis. Punjab Fruit J. 1962-64:26-27, 97-107. Krezdorn, A. H. 1972. Pollination requirement of citrus. Citrus Indus. 53:5-7, 28. Manzoor-ul-haq, M. Rafie-ul-din and A. Ghaffar. 1978. Effect of insect pollination on fruit bearing in Kinnow Mandarin (Citrus reticulata), and physical and chemical properties of the fruit. J. Apic. Res. 17:47-49. McGregor, S. E. 1976. Insect pollination of cultivated crop plants. USDA/ARS Agriculture Handbook 496, Washington, USA. 411 pp. Mchedlishvili, G. I. 1962. Pollination of citrus trees by bees. Pchelovodstvo 39(9):17 (Russian). MDHP. 1990. Master plan of horticulture development in Nepal. Vol. 1: The master plan main report and Vol. 8: Demand and marketing analysis. MOA, Singh Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal. Mishra, R. C. (Ed.). 1998. Perspective in Indian apiculture. Agro Botanica, India. MOA. 1997. Statistical information of Nepalese agriculture. Agricuture Statistics Division, Kathmandu, Nepal. MOA. 2001. Statistical information of Nepalese agriculture. Agricuture Statistics Division, Kathmandu, Nepal. Moffett, J. O. and D. R. Rodney. 1972. Fairchild tangerines need both: honeybees, pollinator trees. Prog. Agri. In Ariz. 23(5): 6-7. Munawar, M. S. and Nasreen. 1999. Contribution of honeybees (Apis mellifera ) in fruit set on Citrus chinensis var Mausami. Proceedings of 23rd International Beekeeping Congress September 12-17, 1999. Vencuvor, Canada. pp 43 (Abstract). NCDP. 1990. Report- Seventh Five Year Plan. National Citrus Development Program, Nepal. Nijjar, G. S. and B. S. Sandhu. 1971. A study on the fruit set problem in sweet lime (Citrus limmettoides Tanaka). J. Res. (PAU) 8:411-415. Oppenheimer, C. 1948. Experiments with unfruitful Clementine mandarins in Palestine. Agri. Res. Sta. Rehovoth Bull. 48:1-63. Price, P. 1975. Insect ecology. John Wiley and Sons, New York, USA. Pratap, U. 2000. Foraging behavior of Apis cerana on sweet orange (Citrus sinensis var Red Junar) and its impact on fruit production In M. Matsuka, L. R. Verma, S. Wongsiri, K. K. Shrestha and U. Pratap (eds.) Asian Bees and Beekeeping Progress of Research and Development. Oxford and IBH Pub. Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, India. pp 176-177. Rajput, C. B. S. and R. S. Haribabu. 1999. Citriculture. Kalayani Publishers, New Delhi, India. Randhawa, G. S. and K. C. Srivastav. 1986. Citriculture in India. Hundustan Pub. Corp., India. 501 pp. Randhawa, G. S., N. Nath and S. S. Choudhary. 1961. Flowering and pollination studies in citrus with special reference to lemon (Citrus limon Burm.). Indian J. Hort. 18:135-147. Robinson, F. A. and A. H. Krezdorn. 1962. Pollination of the Orlando Tangelo. Amer. Bee J. 102: 132-133. Singh, S. 1998. Poverty and living standards. In: A compendium on environment statistics 1998 Nepal. HMG, NPCS, CBS, Kathmandu, Nepal. pp 599-618. Spiegel-Roy, P. 1996. Biology of citrus. Cambridge Univ. Press, Great Britain, UK. 230 pp.

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Thapa, V. K. 1997. An inventory of Nepals insects Vol I. IUCN- The World Conservation Union, Kathmandu, Nepal. Tomiyasu, Y., S. K. Verma and D. B. Thapa. 1998. Citrus cultivation in Nepal (Nepali), Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal. 120 p. Upreti, B. K. 1998. Natural diversity. A compendium on environment statistics 1998 Nepal. HMGN, National Planning Commission Secretariat, Central Bureau of statistics, Kathmandu. Nepal. pp 81-104. Van Horn, C. W. and F. E. Todd. 1954. Bees, bouquets and better Tangerines. Proc. Agri. Ariz. 6(1):11. Vansell, G. H., W. G. Watkins and R. K. Bishop. 1942. Orange nectar and pollen in relation to bee activity. J. Econ. Ent. 35:321-332. Vansell, G. H. 1944. Some western nectars and their corresponding honeys. J. Econ. Ent. 37:530536. Verma, L. R. and K. K. Jindal. 1997. Frui crops pollination. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, India. 405 pp. Zavrashvili, R. M. 1967. Influence of bees on the yield of citrus trees on the commercial plantation of Georgia. Proc. 21st Intl. Apic. Cong. College Park, MD, USA. pp 450-451.

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Appendix-1 STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE FOR SURVEY

Name of HH: Sex: Dev. Region : District: Village: Total Number

1. Socio Demographic Information: Particulars Male Female Number of HH Members Level Number Level Number a. Adult Literacy b. Schooling Children c. Govt. / Private Service Total persons involved in Agriculture: Male No . Female No

Level

Total No..

2. Weather Information: (Name of the location and its Altitude: -------------------------------------------) Particulars Spring Summer Rainy Winter Temperature (Low/Med/High) Humidity (Low/Med/High) Rainfall (Low/Med/High) Frost (Low/Med/High) Snow (Low/Med/High) Wind (Low/Med/High) 3. Landholding/Farm Information: Particulars Low land Upland Land holding (ha) Cultivated Uncultivated Cultivated Uncultivated a. Un-irrigated land (ha) b. Irrigated land (ha) c. Leached land (ha) 4. Socio Economic Information: Annual Income and Expenditure From Gov/Private Service From agriculture land From others: (Name of work or enterprise..) Total expenditure Total saving 5. Major Crop Information: Cereal Crops Name Area Prod Vegetable Crops Area Prod (Rs) Total

Name

Name

Other Cash Crops Area Prod

6. Citrus Crop Information: Citrus Variety Year of Planting

Number Planted

Number Survived

Land Used Fruit Harvest Production (kg) (ha) (Month)

i) ii) iii) iv)

Who decides what crops to grow ? a) HH Male b) HH Female c) Both Who decides to allocate resource a) HH Male b) HH Female c) Both Who handles produce after harvest a) HH Male b) HH Female c) Both Who handles money after produce sale a) HH Male b) HH Female c) Both

45

v) Any training received ? Mention name of raining, place, duration and year: 7. Have You Noticed Any Problems in Your Citrus Plants ? If yes, specify. Name of Citrus Crop Specific Problems Trees Infested (No) Estimated Loss (%)

If experienced failure of crop due to pests in last 5-10 yrs, specify, citrus crop, problem, year and loss. ...................................................................................................................................................................... 8. Fruit Marketing: Citrus Fruit Selling Variety Fruit (Kg) Price (Rs/kg) Selling (M/F) Cash handling (M/F)

At Farm Gate At Local Market At City Market Any other Market If stored locally i). Mention duration (months) and quantity (kg) of fruits consumed at home: ii). Mention duration (months) stored and name of citrus fruits locally stored: iii). Is your production increasing or decreasing ? __________ iv). Reasons of (increase or decrease) a)___________ b) _______________ c) _______________ 9. Pesticide and Environment: Do you use pesticides in your citrus orchard? If yes, specify Name of Name of Name of Dose/Conc. No of Fruit No. of Cost of Citrus Pest Pesticide used Tree Treated Application Treatment

a. If sprayed or dusted, mention type of equipment used in pesticide application: _______________ b. Any problem to pollinators by pesticide? No/Yes, if yes, specify i) bees ii) wasps iii) buterflies iv) moths v) birds vi) other ( ) 10. Are you aware of the harmful effect of pesticide? No/Yes. If yes, specify a) Effect on: human / animals / fish / birds b) Effect on: soils / crops / food / crop pests c) Effect on: pollinators / predators / parasites / bioagents d) Others, pls. Specify ---------------------------11. After applying pesticides, do you notice any ill-health symptoms? No / Yes. If yes, which symptoms? a) Eye irritation b) Skin rashes c) Headache d) Vomiting e) Fever f) Cough g) Throat pain h) Chest pain i) Sweating j) Others, pls. specify 12. How long after spraying do you harvest citrus fruits? a) One to three days after b) One week after d) Three weeks after e) Four weeks after c) Two weeks after f) More than four weeks

13. Have you also been practicing pest control based on your own knowledge? No/Yes. If yes, specify a) Through cultural: b) Through mechanical: c) Through biological: d) Through chemical: e) Through host resistance: f) Others, pls. specify i) What method do you think the best to control pest in your orchard any of above and why? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ii) Farmers practice of citrus insect/disease control: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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14. Have you adopted intercropping in your Citrus Orchard ? No. Yes. If yes, mention Intercropping crops Season Area (Ropani) Yield (kg) Price (Rs)

Do you believe that intercropping increase crop as well as pollinators diversity ? Yes/No. 15. Do you know about biodiversities? Yes/No. If Yes, specify: a) Pollinator diversity b) Citrus diversity d) Honeybee diversity e) Insect pest diversity 16. If you know bio-diversity, what ways bio-diversity can be protected? Specify: a) Growing various citrus crops b) Saving natural pollinators c) Using honeybees in pollination d) Aforestraion e) Minimizing environmental pollution 17. Pollinators Information: Do you believe that various polliantors visit your orchard? Yes/No. If yes, a. Who told you about pollinators for crop pollination? b. What type of pollinators have you seen in your citrus orchard ? i) Bees ii) Wasps iii) Butterflies iv) Moths v) Birds vi) Bats v) If others, specify .. d. Number of natural pollinators is increase or decreasing and reason for it: i)-------------------------ii)-----------------------------------iii) -------------------------------------- iv)--------------------------------18. Bee pollinators: Do you know that honeybees pollinate your crops? No/Yes, if yes, a. Who told you about honeybees for pollination? b. Are there wild bee colonies in your locality? No/Yes, If yes colony No.___ and season______ c. What percent of citrus fruit increase do you expect by honeybee pollination? d. Do other beekeepers bring honeybees in citrus flowering season? If yes, Colony No___ Month___ 19. Do you keep honeybees? No/Yes. If yes, specify a) Pollination b) Honey production c) Both Races of bees No. of Annual Honey Price of Honey (Rs/kg) Hives Harvest (kg) Native honeybees in modern hive Native honeybees in indigenous hive European honeybees in modern hive Others specify a). Who decides time of honey harvest and sale or use at home? i) Male ii) Female iii) Both b). Who keeps money and decides to spend ? i) Male ii) Female iii) Both c). Mention duration (months) and quantity (kg) of honey consumed at home: d) Is your honeybee colonies increasing or decreasing ? Reason i)_______ ii)______ iii)_______ e). Is your honey production increasing or decreasing ? __________ f). Reasons of (increase or decrease) i) __________ ii) _______________ iii) _______________ 20. Organization Information: a. Where did you get support to establish citrus orchard / beekeeping from? -----------------------------b. Are you involved in any CBO, NGO etc? No/Yes. If yes, which organization? -----------------------c. Does any organization support in citrus activities? No/Yes? If yes, specify name and type of help ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------d. Does your organization support in beekeeping activities? No/Yes? If yes, specify name and help----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------e. Does your organization support in pollinators conservation activities ? Yes / No. If yes, specify name and help ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------f. What kind of support do you expect in citrus, beekeeping, pollinator and biodiversity activities? Specify in priority (a e) Citrus: a) b) c) d) e)

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Bees: Pollinators:

a) a)

b) b) b)

c) c) c)

d) d) d)

e) e) e)

Biodiversity a)

21. List in priority five main problems that you have faced in your citrus orchard, beekeeping pollinators and biodiversity conservation in priority (a-e) Citrus: a) b) c) d) e) Bees: Pollinators: a) a) b) b) b) c) c) c) d) d) d) e) e) e)

Biodiversity a)

22. Gender Involvement in Citrus Production and Marketing: Types of Activities Gender involvement in various activities Male Time Female Time Citrus orchard site selection Layout of citrus orchard Digging pits for planting saplings Manure mixing and pit filling Citrus type and variety selection Nursery bed preparation Care of young plants in nursery Weeding and cleaning orchard Training and pruning plants Interculture and manuring orchard Intercropping in citrus orchard Orchard irrigation Spraying orchard for pest control Fruit harvesting Post harvest handling Fruit marketing Attending meeting Participating training Beekeeping and handling bees Feeding honeybee colony Pollination arrangement with bees Honey harvesting Honey marketing Money matters Finally, any suggestions: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Thanks for cooperation

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Pictures

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Appendix-2 CHECKLIST FOR INFORMATION COLLECTION ON CITRUS WITH ACADEMICIANS 1. Name/Address/Position: 2. Main citrus varieties (local and introduced) in order of preference and priority: 3. Farmers cultivated citrus varieties with reasons of preference 4. Gender involvement in citrus cultivation and marketing 5. Citrus variety and seasonal production trend 6. Citrus varieties and blooming seasons and duration of blooming 7. Yield and market price of main citrus fruits and seasons of marketing 8. Production constraints of citrus in the country with specificity to citrus farmers 9. Market channel and constraints 10. Pollination awareness among farmers/officers/extension workers 11. Main natural pollinators and their population trends in citrus pollination 12. Wild honeybees colonies and their visits to citrus orchard 13. Honeybees and their role in citrus pollination and present population trend 14. Pesticide use and disturbance to citrus pollination 15. Pollination problems in other crops 16. National policy related to citrus promotion its implementation 17. National policy related to pollination promotion and its implementation 18. Any other comments and suggestions Thanks for kind cooperation

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