Crop Growth Modeling & Simulation

Crop is defined as an “Aggregation of individual plant species grown in a unit area for economic
purpose”.

Growth is defined as an “Irreversible increase in size and volume and is the consequence of
differentiation and distribution occurring in the plant”.

Simulation is defined as “Reproducing the essence of a system without reproducing the system
itself”. In simulation the essential characteristics of the system are reproduced in a model, which is then
studied in an abbreviated time scale.

A model is a schematic representation of the conception of a system or an act of mimicry or a set of

equations, which represents the behaviour of a system. Also, a model is “A representation of an object,
system or idea in some form other than that of the entity itself”. Its purpose is usually to aid in
explaining, understanding or improving performance of a system.

A model is, by definition“A simplified version of a part of reality, not a one to one copy”. This
simplification makes models useful because it offers a comprehensive description of a problem
situation. However, the simplification is, at the same time, the greatest drawback of the process. It is a
difficult task to produce a comprehensible, operational representation of a part of reality, which grasps
the essential elements and mechanisms of that real world system and even more demanding, when the
complex systems encountered in environmental management.

TYPES OF MODELS:
Depending upon the purpose for which it is designed the models are classified into different groups or
types.

1. Statistical models: These models express the relationship between yield or yield components
and weather parameters. In these models relationships are measured in a system using statistical
techniques. Example: Step down regressions and correlation, etc (Regression is a measure of the
relation between the mean value of one variable (e.g. output) and corresponding values of other
variables (e.g. time and cost), and stepwise regression is a method of fitting regression models in which
the choice of predictive variables is carried out by an automatic procedure In each step, a variable is
considered for addition to or subtraction from the set of explanatory variables based on some pre-
specified criterion. Usually, this takes the form of a sequence of F-tests or t-tests.

2. Mechanistic models: These models explain not only the relationship between weather
parameters and yield, but also the mechanism of these models (explains the relationship of influencing
dependent variables). These models are based on physical selection.

3. Deterministic models: These models estimate the exact value of the yield or dependent
variable. These models also have defined coefficients.
4. Stochastic models: A probability element is attached to each output. For each set of inputs
different outputs are given along with probabilities. These models define yield or state of dependent
variable at a given rate.

5. Dynamic models: Time is included as a variable. Both dependent and independent variables are
having values which remain constant over a given period of time.

6. Static: Time is not included as a variable. Dependent and independent variables having values
remain constant over a given period of time.

7. Simulation models: Computer models, in general, are a mathematical representation of a real

world system. One of the main goals of crop simulation models is to estimate agricultural production as
a function of weather and soil conditions as well as crop management. These models use one or more
sets of differential equations, and calculate both rate and state variables over time, normally from
planting until harvest maturity or final harvest.

8. Descriptive model: A descriptive model defines the behaviour of a system in a simple manner.
The model reflects little or none of the mechanisms that are the causes of phenomena. But, consists of
one or more mathematical equations. An example of such an equation is the one derived from
successively measured weights of a crop. The equation is helpful to determine quickly the weight of the
crop where no observation was made.

9. Explanatory model: This consists of quantitative description of the mechanisms and processes
that cause the behavior of the system. To create this model, a system is analyzed and its processes and
mechanisms are quantified separately. The model is built by integrating these descriptions for the entire
system. It contains descriptions of distinct processes such as leaf area expansion, tiller production, etc.
Crop growth is a consequence of these processes.

History and Need of Crop Modeling

Models are useful tools for agricultural purposes. Several examples could be mentioned, in the areas of
irrigation management, soil physics, plant nutrition, plant diseases, and related topics. There is even a
model used in biology and agriculture for a longtime.

The de Wit school of models (In the sixties) the first attempt to model photosynthetic rates of crop
canopies was made (de Wit, 1965). The results obtained from this model were used among others, to
estimate potential food production for some areas of the world and to provide indications for crop
management and breeding (de Wit, 1967; Linneman et al., 1979).

This was followed by the construction of an Elementary CROp growth Simulator (ELCROS) by de Wit et
al. (1970). This model included the static photosynthesis model and crop respiration was taken as a fixed
fraction per day of the biomass, plus an amount proportional to the growth rate.

In addition, a functional equilibrium between root and shoot growth was added (Penning de Vries et al.,
1974). The introduction of micrometeorology in the models (Goudriaan, 1977) and quantification of
canopy resistance to gas exchanges allowed the models to improve the simulation of transpiration and
evolve into the Basic crop growth Simulator (BACROS) (de Wit and Goudriaan, 1978).
To meet the requirements of resource poor farmers in the tropics and sub tropics IBSNAT (International
Benchmark Sites Network for Agro-technology Transfer) began in 1982.

This was under a contract from the U.S. Agency for International Development to the University of
Hawaii at Manoa, USA. IBSNAT was an attempt to demonstrate the effectiveness of understanding
options through systems analysis and simulation for ultimate benefit of farm households across the
globe.

The models developed by IBSNAT were simply the means by which the knowledge scientists have and
could be placed in the hands of users. The major product of IBSNAT was a Decision Support System for
Agro-Technology Transfer (DSSAT).

As agriculture becomes more intensive, the demand for a higher level of control of the environment in
which the plants grow increases. This control ranges from better strategies of soil management to
“closed” environments, where most, if not all, the atmospheric and soil variables can be adjusted. Based
on this premise, plant growth and development models should be elaborated to supply a basis for
planning and managing crop production. Crop modeling can also be useful as a means to help the
scientist define research priorities. Using a model to estimate the importance and the effect of certain
parameters, a researcher can observe which factors should be more studied in future research, thus
increasing the understanding of the system. The model has also the potential of helping to understand
the basic interactions in the soil-plant-atmosphere system.

To simulate means to imitate, to reproduce, to appear similar. The art of simulating is as old as man.
From the origin of the civilization, man had to struggle to survive, using, even if unconsciously,
simulations of real future processes to be ready for life. Simulation is, therefore, an analogy with the
reality, being common in many areas.

An athlete simulates during training the conditions that will prevail in the real competition; students
make exercises and exams simulating their future work.In agriculture, the simulation is important to
forecast the results of a certain system management or of a certain environmental condition.

Model is a word that admits several connotations, among which the following can be mentioned: (i) the
representation of some entity, usually in smaller size than the original; (ii) a simpledescription of a
system, used to explain it or toperform calculations. It can be noticed, based on the above definitions,
that models can be a prototype, a simplified representation, as well as an abstraction of a reality.
A model is as precise and reliable as thedatabase used in its development, and a simulation isas accurate
and reliable as the database used to feed the model.

The traditional experimentation is time consuming and costly. So, systems analysis and simulation have
an important role to play in fostering this understanding of options. The information science is rapidly
changing. The computer technology is blossoming. So, DSSAT has the potential to reduce substantially
the time and cost of field experimentation necessary for adequate evaluation of new cultivars and new
management systems.

Several crop growth and yield models built on a framework similar in structure were developed as part
of DSSAT package. The package consists of : 1) data base management system for soil, weather, genetic
coefficients, and management inputs, 2) models, 3) series of utility programs, 4) series of weather
generation programs, 5) strategy evaluation program to evaluate options including choice of variety,
planting date, plant population density, row spacing, soil type, irrigation, fertilizer application, initial
conditions on yields, water stress in the vegetative or reproductive stages of development, and net
returns.

One of the most important uses of models isto forecast the results produced by a given system
inresponse to a given set of inputs. One very importantfuture use of models in agriculture is to forecast
theeffects of certain environmental conditions andagricultural practices on crop performance.

Being useful tools for researchers, models havealso been developed and applied to solve
complexagricultural problems.Plant modeling has progressed clearly in thepast 30 years, mainly due to
the growing demand formodels.

There was practically no demand for farm-level models a couple of decades ago, but nowadays,many
farms are equipped with microcomputers anddata-loggers, with access to mainframe computersthrough
the Internet. The users are growing quicklyin number and degree of sophistication. Another growing
group of model users is thegovernmental agencies, concerned with developingagricultural and
environmental policies.Another potential use of models comes fromtheir ability in helping to set
research priorities andguide fund allocations. Modeling canprovide quantitative descriptions and
theunderstanding of agricultural systems, helping topinpoint areas where knowledge is lacking
andhelping in the design of more adequate and effective experiments.

A Crop Simulation Model (CSM) is a simulation model that describes processes of crop growth
and development as a function of weather conditions, soil conditions, and crop management. Typically,
such models estimate times that specific growth stages are attained, biomass of crop components (e.g.,
leaves, stems, roots and harvestable products) as they change over time, and similarly, changes in soil
moisture and nutrient status.

Commonly used crop simulation models

CropSyst: is a multi-year multi-crop daily time-step crop simulation model being developed by a
team at Washington State University's Department of Biological Systems Engineering. The model is used
to study the effect of cropping systems management on productivity (budgeting).

The model has been parameterized for a wide range of crops such as potatoes, lentils, tea and grapes.
The Management options include rotations, irrigation, fertilization and tillage. It is widely used within
research projects around the world including the United States, Italy and the United Kingdom (e.g. Land
Allocation Decision Support System).

APSIM: The Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator is a highly advanced simulator of agricultural
systems. APSIM was created by CSIRO, the State of Queensland (through its Department of Agriculture
Fisheries and Forestry) and The University of Queensland in Australia
Applications and Uses of Crop Growth Models in Agricultural Sciences
Crop models have long been powerful tools in unraveling physiological mechanisms that determine crop
yield in relation to the environment. For example, nitrogen management was a key limiting factor for
high-yielding rice varieties, using a model that explained yield differences reasonably well in terms of
radiation, temperature, leaf N content and variety phenology types.

In the context of a global need to improve productivity, yield gap analysis is critical to identify the most
important crop, soil and management factors; to effectively prioritize research and interventions; to
evaluate the impact of changing circumstances such as climate change or disease; and to provide an
agronomic basis to models assessing food security and land use at different spatial scales (Van Ittersum
et al. 2013).

Who uses the Models (DSSAT) tools?

The crop growth models are being developed to meet the demands under the following situations in
agricultural Sciences.

1. When the farmers have the difficult task of managing their crops on poor soils in harsh and risky
climates.

2. When scientists and research managers need tools that can assist them in taking an integrated
approach to finding solutions in the complex problem of weather, soil and crop management.

3. When policy makers and administrators need simple tools that can assist them in policy management
in agricultural meteorology. The potential uses of crop growth models for practical applications are as
follows;

On farm decision-making and agronomic management

The models allow evaluation of one or more options that are available with respect to one or more
agronomic management decisions like:

 Determine optimum planting date.

 Determine best choice of cultivars.

 Evaluate weather risk.

 Investment decisions.

 The crop growth models can be used to predict crop performance in regions where the
crop has not been grown before or not grown under optimal conditions. Such
applications are of value for regional development and agricultural planning in
developing countries. A model can calculate probabilities of grain yield levels for a
given soil type based on rainfall. Investment decisions like purchase of irrigation
systems can be taken with an eye on long term usage of the equipment thus acquired.
Understanding of research
In agro-meteorological research the crop models basically help in:

 Testing scientific hypothesis.

 Highlight where information is missing.

 Organizing data.

 Integrating across disciplines.

 Assist in genetic improvement;

‰ Evaluate optimum genetic traits for specific environments.

‰ Evaluate cultivar stability under long term weather.

Policy management
The policy management is one very useful application of crop simulation models. The issues range from
global (impacts of climate change on crops) to field level (effect of crop rotation on soil quality) issues.
crop simulation modeling using satellite and ground-based data could be used to estimate crop
production for famine early warning which can allow policy makers the time they need to take
appropriate steps to ameliorate the effects of global food shortages on vulnerable urban and rural
populations. Crop models can be used to understand the effects of climate change such as:

a) Consequences of elevated carbon-dioxide, and

b) Changes in temperature and rainfall on crop development, growth and yield. Ultimately, the breeders
can anticipate future requirements based on the climate change.

Crop modeling is of great utility in examining hypothetical or projected scenarios, helping build the case
for investment in agricultural research and rational policymaking, especially in combination with
economic analysis. This is one example of the multidisciplinary collaborations that crop modeling can
ultimately facilitate.

Uses of crop models:

1. A model can simulate the crop yield.

2. It is used to represent the relations between all plant processes.

3. It sure be empirical at some lower level, such as the variation in gross photosynthetic rate
according to the temperature.

4. It helps us to understand the interactions of its main components.

5. Some models try to represent processes in the system up to two organization levels below the
forecast level.
 6. A model is also used to forecast crop yield will represent the processes at organ level

7. At the photosynthesis organization level, the model used to represent the photosynthesis for
leaf area.

8. Models have a much larger potential to allow extrapolation in the forecasts outside the
boundaries in which they were generated (Chanter, 1981).

9. Model gives information about facts regarding a phenomenon.

10. Model can supply the knowledge one does not have about a system.

11. A model used to help to detect areas where the knowledge and data are scarce.

12. The modeling process stimulates new ideas

13. When data compared with traditional methods, the models make, usually, a better use of data.

14. Models allow interpolation and prediction

15. A model summarizes large amounts of information

16. A good model can be used to suggest priorities in the application of resources for research

17. The simulation model of plant yield has practical application in the management of cropping
systems.

18. Crop simulation models gives the formation of stocks

19. It also used in the commercialization

20. It is used in the making of agricultural policies and zoning, and in many other branches of
agricultural activity.

21. Models used in each one of those contexts will have a different form and will be used in
different ways.

Issues related to weather on crop modeling

For any application of a crop model weather data is an essential input and it continues to play a key role.
So:

1. There is an urgent need to develop standards for weather station equipment and sensors installation
and maintenance.

2. It is also important that a uniform file format is defined for storage and distribution of weather data,
so that they can easily be exchanged among agro-meteorologists, crop modelers and others working in
climate and weather aspects across the globe.

3. Easy access to weather data, preferably through the internet and the World Wide Web, will be critical
for the application of crop models for yield forecasting and tactical decision making.
4. Previously one of the limitations of the current crop simulation models was that they can only
simulate crop yield for a particular site. At this site weather (soil and management) data also must be
available. It is a known fact that the weather data (and all these other details) are not available at all
locations where crops are grown. To solve these problems, the Geographical Information System (GIS)
approach has opened up a whole field of crop modeling applications at spatial scale. From the field level
for site-specific management to the regional level for productivity analysis and food security the role of
GIS is going to be tremendous.

Limitations of Modeling
Cautions and limitations in model uses are suggested, because appropriate use for a particular purpose
depends on whether the model complexity is appropriate to the question being asked and whether the
model has been tested in diverse environments. One problem with these models, already empirical at
the forecast level, is that they cannot be extrapolated. In some cases, simple models are not appropriate
because they are not programmed to address a particular phenomenon. Complex models are not
appropriate because they may require inputs that are not practical to obtain in a field situation.

Corp models required large amount of input data, which may not be available with the user along with
it, required skilled manpower, good knowledge of computers and computer language. Crop modeling
needs multidisciplinary knowledge. No model can take into account all the existing complexity of
biological systems. Hence simulation results have errors. A model is a tool for improving critical thought,
not a substitute for it. Models can help formulate hypotheses and improve efficiency of field
experiments, but they do not eliminate the need for continued experimentation. Models developed for
a specific region cannot be used as such in another region. Proper parameterization and calibration is
needed before using a model.
Model Components
The Cropping System Model (CSM) is structured in a modular format in which components separate
along scientific discipline lines and have interfaces which allow replacement or addition of modules.
CSM now incorporates all crop models as modules using a single soil module and a single weather
module. The new cropping system model now contains models of 40+ crops derived from the original
SOYGRO, PNUTGRO, CERES-Maize, and CERES-Wheat crop growth models.

The following schematic illustrates the connection between the primary and secondary modules of the
CSM. The main program controls all the timing for the model, while the Land Unit module is used to
control processing and data transfer between all primary modules.

Primary Modules
 Management module
 Soil module
 Weather module
 Soil-Plant-Atmosphere module
 Plant module
1. Management module
The Management module processes user inputs describing crop management. This includes plantings,
irrigations, fertilizer applications, tillage events, addition of organic material (residues or manure) and
harvests. The module thus is key in processing information associated with what are considered
“treatments” in field experiments. The module includes provisions for rule-based automatic
management such as to control planting dates when a given date and soil temperature threshold are
attained.

There are currently seven types of field operations that are modeled in CSM.

 Planting Event
 Irrigation application
 Fertilizer application
 Tillage event
 Organic matter application
 Chemical application
 Harvest event

Planting event
Planting can be based on either field records or on a set of rules for triggering automatic planting.
Field records include information such as date, plant density at sowing and emergence, planting
method, row spacing, planting depth, and the weight of material planted. Transplanting material
requires additional information about the transplant weight and nursery environment.

When soil moisture and temperature conditions are within the specified ranges, and within the
specified planting window, a planting event is triggered using the details specified in the field records
section of FileX.

Irrigation application
Irrigation can be based on either field records or on a set of rules for triggering automatic irrigation.

Field records

Automatic irrigation

For more details on specifying irrigation in DSSAT-CSM, see here.

Fertilizer application
Fertilizer applications are specified as field records either by “year + day of year” format or as days after
planting. Fertilizer materials are specified as a code, which triggers a lookup of fertilizer properties from
a table.

Tillage event
See here for information about tillage in DSSAT-CSM.

Organic matter application

Organic matter applications are specified based on field records in either “year + day of year” format or
as days after planting. Residue material codes are listed in the Details.CDE file in the DSSAT root
directory. Physical and chemical properties of these various materials are listed in RESCH***.SDA in the
StandardData folder, where the “***” refers to the DSSAT major release version number, e.g., “047” for
DSSAT v4.7.

Chemical application
DSSAT-CSM accommodates chemical applications, including date of application, type of chemical,
application method, and amount applied. Currently the model only responds to application of ethylene
or ethephon (growth regulators) to force flowering in the pineapple model. All other chemical
application information listed in an experiment file is considered to be documentation of the field
experiment only and will not have an effect on the model processes. Codes for chemical applications are
listed in the Details.CDE file in the DSSAT root directory.

Harvest event
Harvest events for annual crops can be specified on a particular date or days after planting based on
field records. Automatic harvesting can be specified when the crop reaches simulated maturity date.
The perennial forage model allows “mow” events to be specified in an external file, allowing multiple
harvests in a simulation.

2. Soil Module
The Soil module deals with simulation of the dynamics of soil constituents including:

 Soil water
 Inorganic soil N
 Inorganic soil P
 Inorganic soil K
 Soil organic matter modules

CERES-Godwin soil organic matter module – This is the default soil organic matter module for the
DSSAT-CSM for single-season simulations. It requires fewer inputs than the Century-based module and
has a long history of use for simulation of cropping systems in DSSAT and other models.

CENTURY (Parton) soil organic matter module – A SOM–residue module from the CENTURY model
was incorporated in the DSSAT crop simulation models that include more complex decomposition
dynamics and a surface residue layer. By incorporating the CENTURY SOM–residue module, DSSAT crop
simulation models have become more suitable for simulating low-input systems and conducting long-
term sustainability analyses.

o Greenhouse Gas Emissions Modules

o Ceres Denitrification
o DayCent Denitrification
o N-gas emissions
o Methane emissions

Dynamic soil properties

Flood N dynamics

3. Weather Module
The Weather module inputs daily weather data and also can generate long term (e.g., 30-year) series of
daily weather data that reproduce the statistical properties of a shorter series of weather years. The
minimum daily weather data required are solar radiation, minimum and maximum air temperatures,
and precipitation. However, for more accurate estimation of evapotranspiration, humidity (e.g., as daily
mean dewpoint temperature) and wind speed are required.

The minimum weather data include the metadata for the weather station, especially latitude, longitude,
elevation, and sensor height, and daily maximum and minimum temperature, rainfall, and solar
radiation. Although solar radiation is not commonly measured at many remote locations, it is a required
input for the accurate simulation of photosynthesis and of potential transpiration using the Priestley-
Taylor equation (Priestley and Taylor, 1972).
Additional optional daily inputs include dewpoint temperature, windspeed, photosynthetically active
radiation, minimum relative humidity, and vapor pressure. Depending on the user selection of method
for estimating reference evapotranspiration, the model will use these values if supplied, but provide
default values if the data are not provided.

Hourly variables are synthesized by the module for solar radiation, relative humidity, temperature, and
wind speed for use by those routines which simulate processes on an hourly time scale.

The environmental modification capability allows a user to modify weather values during a simulation to
model the effects of climate change, growth chambers, solar shades, rain shelters, or other types of
artificial manipulation of environment.

 Atmospheric CO2 can be specified in several ways in the model:

 The default method is to read measured values from a file. These values represent smoothed bi-
monthly values from the Mauna Loa observatory. Daily values are linearly interpolated.
 A default value can be used which allows a static CO2 value of 380 ppm (corresponding to 2005
values) to be used for an entire simulation.
 Annual or daily CO2 values can be specified in the weather input file.
 And the final method is to specify a CO2 value in the Environmental Modifications section of an
experiment file.
4. The Soil-Plant-Atmosphere module (SPAM) module
The Soil-Plant-Atmosphere module (SPAM) module deals with competition for light and water among
the soil, plants, and atmosphere. It models processes of soil evaporation and plant transpiration, thus
providing estimates of crop water use as actual evapotranspiration (ET). Soil temperatures at layer
depths are also estimated in this routine.

The actual transpiration of the crop is the minimum of the potential Ep or the water uptake. Potential
root water uptake from successive layers follows the approach described by Ritchie (1998), and it is
dependent on root length density and the fraction of available soil water content in each layer. Total
root water uptake is integrated over all layers, and transpiration is reduced if potential root water
uptake is less than potential Ep. Under water deficits, the daily photo-assimilation is reduced as a
function of actual transpiration (root uptake) over potential Ep, using a drought stress factor called
SWFAC. Expansive processes are reduced somewhat sooner by a similar factor called TURFAC. See Boote
et al. (2009) for a review of water balance, evapotranspiration, and simulation of water stress effects in
the CROPGRO model.

5. Plant Modules
The original crop models of DSSAT were CERES-Maize, CERES-Wheat, SOYGRO, and PNUTGRO. These
models evolved over time from many independent models to become a single agricultural systems
model that encompasses all the original crop models as individual crop modules (Jones et al., 2001).

New crop modules are added to DSSAT via two methods. The first, easier approach uses the CROPGRO
template and data from field experiments, journal articles, non-refereed publications and reports, and
variety trials to calibrate the genetic parameters which control the growth and development
characteristics of the new crop. This approach does not require modifying existing model software or
computer code. The second approach is to create a completely new crop module within the CSM code,
such as when growth or phenological processes are very different from those described by CROPGRO. In
this case, both model coding and calibration of parameters are required. The CERES-Sugarbeet model is
one example of a recently added module (Anar et al., 2019).

Generic plant sub-modules

These sub-modules can be accessed from any plant species module, although not all plant modules have
been linked at this time.

Generic plant phosphorus uptake

Pest and disease damage

Crop species sub-modules

Crops currently available in DSSAT are listed below with links to further information as available:

CROPGRO annual crop module

 Grain legumes:
 Soybean
 Peanut (Groundnut)
 Dry bean
 Chickpea (Garbanzo)

Under development:

 Amaranth, Carinata, Chia, Flax, Lentil, Pea, Lima bean, Quinoa

 Legumes
 Alfalfa (Lucerne)
 Grasses
DSSAT Overview
The Decision Support System for Agro-technology Transfer (DSSAT) is a software application program
that comprises crop simulation models for over 42 crops (as of Version 4.7.5) as well as tools to facilitate
effective use of the models. The tools include database management programs for soil, weather, crop
management and experimental data, utilities, and application programs. The crop simulation models
simulate growth, development and yield as a function of the soil-plant-atmosphere dynamics.

DSSAT and its crop simulation models have been used for a wide range of applications at different
spatial and temporal scales. This includes on-farm and precision management, regional assessments of
the impact of climate variability and climate change, gene-based modeling and breeding selection, water
use, greenhouse gas emissions, and long-term sustainability through the soil organic carbon and
nitrogen balances. DSSAT has been in used by more than 16,500 researchers, educators, consultants,
extension agents, growers, and policy and decision makers in over 174 countries worldwide.

The crop models require daily weather data, soil surface and profile information, and detailed crop
management as input. Crop genetic information is defined in a crop species file that is provided by
DSSAT and cultivar or variety information that should be provided by the user. Simulations are initiated
either at planting or prior to planting through the simulation of a bare fallow period. These simulations
are conducted at a daily step or in some cases, at an hourly time step depending on the process and the
crop model. At the end of each day, the plant and soil water, nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon balances
are updated, as well as the crop’s vegetative and reproductive development stage.

For applications, DSSAT combines crop, soil, and weather data bases with crop models and application
programs to simulate multi-year outcomes of crop management strategies. DSSAT integrates the effects
of soil, crop phenotype, weather and management options, and allows users to ask “what if” questions
by conducting virtual simulation experiments on a desktop computer in minutes which would consume a
significant part of an agronomist’s career if conducted as real experiments.

DSSAT also provides for evaluation of crop model outputs with experimental data, thus allowing users to
compare simulated outcomes with observed results. This is critical prior to any application of a crop
model, especially if real-world decisions or recommendations are based on modeled results. Crop model
evaluation is accomplished by inputting the user’s minimum data, running the model, and comparing
outputs with observed data. By simulating probable outcomes of crop management strategies, DSSAT
offers users information with which to rapidly appraise new crops, products, and practices for adoption.

With the release of DSSAT v4.7, many changes have been incorporated — from both the structure of the
crop models and the interface to the models and associated analysis and utility programs. The DSSAT
package provides models of 42 crops with new tools that facilitate the creation and management of
experimental, soil, and weather data files. DSSAT v4.7 also includes improved application programs for
seasonal, spatial, sequence and crop rotation analyses that assess the economic risks and environmental
impacts associated with irrigation, fertilizer and nutrient management, climate variability, climate
change, soil carbon sequestration, and precision management.

Modules Overview
Crop models calculate expected growth and development based on equations that describe how a crop,
as community of plants, responds to soil and weather conditions. At their simplest level of
interpretation, the equations used in a model are a set of differential equations representing rates of
growth or development. Numerical integration over time, typically with daily or hourly time steps,
allows estimation of growth, development, and water and nutrient levels. The equations are based on
information from crop physiology, soil science, meteorology and other fields.

The models provided in DSSAT deal primarily with annual crops including wheat, rice, maize and various
grain legumes but also include herbaceous perennials such as forage legumes and grasses. Besides crop
growth and development, the models simulate water and nutrient dynamics in the soil and crop, so
processes such as leaching, organic matter decomposition, and runoff are also considered. The level of
process details varies greatly, and in many cases, users may select among model options, allowing the
user to assess how different assumptions affect simulations.

Model applications range from real-time decision support for crop management to assessing the
potential impact of climate change on global food security. Crop models are also invaluable as heuristic
devices that help identify research problems where our current knowledge has limits and further
research is needed. The ability of crop models to simulate how different weather years or soil conditions
affect crop performance make models especially useful in research involving climatic uncertainty or
geospatial variation. Recent advances in field phonemics and crop genomics are opening opportunities
for crop models to support research in fundamental plant science.

Because the quality of simulation results depends heavily on the data inputs, DSSAT includes tools to
assist modelers in organizing input data for crop management, soils and weather. An especially
challenging set of inputs are the genotype-specific parameters (GSPs) used to quantify how one cultivar
differs from another. GSPs are most often estimated through calibration to measurements from field
trials, and DSSAT provides tools both to organize data used for calibration and to estimate required
GSPs.

DSSAT Model Application

Crop models are used in a wide range of research. Below we provide brief descriptions by topics with
links to more detailed examples or discussions.

Climate change impact assessment

DSSAT is widely used to simulate the potential impacts of climate change. Crop simulations have been a
major data source for Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessments for agriculture
(Gitay et al., 2001; Easterling et al., 2007). As early as the second IPCC assessment report, extensive use
was made of results from crop growth modeling (Reilly et al., 1996).

A more detailed discussion is here.

Irrigation management
The ability of DSSAT to simulate crop production under different levels of irrigation or other
management conditions and for long-term (30-years or more) weather conditions, makes the model
highly suitable for studying the impacts of irrigation management strategies. Of particular note are
simulation options allowing for automatic irrigation applications (i.e., varying dates or amounts) when
the available soil moisture is depleted to a user-specified threshold.

A more extensive treatment of these topics is given here.

Fertilizer management
Crop improvement
The ability of crop models to integrate effects of genetics (G), environment (E) and management (M)
makes them attractive tools to support crop improvement.

A more detailed discussion is here.

Gene-based modeling
With the rapidly increasing availability of data on DNA sequences of individual cultivars or breeding
lines, there is growing interest in using this incredible data resource to improve crop model
development and applications. Similarly, advances in understanding of the control of plant processes at
the molecular level suggest opportunities to strengthen how mechanisms are represented in crop
models. These interests have given rise to a broad area of activities termed “gene-based modeling.”
Topics of interest to DSSAT users and system modelers can pertain to four activities:

Estimation of genotype-specific model parameters (GSPs)

 Improved representation of crop processes
 Guiding genetic dissection of crop processes through analysis of GSPs as phenotypes
 Use of genetic data for genetically realistic sensitivity analyses

A more extensive treatment of these topics is given here.

o Pest and disease management

o Spatial analysis
o Tillage simulation
o Crop rotations