Chapter 9

The Skeletal System

Regions of the skeleton
axial skeleton forms the central axis
skull, vertebral column, ribs, sternum and sacrum
appendicular skeleton includes the limbs & girdles
Number of bones
206 in typical adult skeleton
varies with development of sesamoid bones (patella)
start at 270 at birth, decreases with age as bones fuse
Surface markings defined in Table 9.2
4 regions of the skeleton = skull, vertebral column &
thorax, upper and lower limbs and girdles

Axial & Appendicular Skeleton
Axial skeleton in
yellow
skull, vertebrae,
sternum, ribs,
sacrum & hyoid
Appendicular
skeleton in blue
pectoral girdle
(Gr.zone)
upper extremity
pelvic girdle
lower extremity
Major Skull Cavities
Cranial cavity holds brain
Orbit contains eyeball &
extraocular muscles
Ethmoid (strainer-like)
sinus
Nasal cavity
Maxillary sinus
Oral cavity
The Skull
22 bones joined together by sutures
Cranial bones surround cranial cavity
8 bones in contact with meninges
frontal, parietal,
calvaria (skullcap) forms roof & walls
Facial bones support teeth & form nasal cavity
& orbit
14 bones with no direct contact with brain or
meninges
attachment of facial & jaw muscles
Cranial Fossa
3 basins () that comprise the cranial floor or base
anterior fossa (=small depression or cavity) holds the frontal lobe of
the brain
middle fossa holds the temporal lobes of the brain
posterior fossa contains the cerebellum
Swelling of the brain may force tissue through foramen
magnum resulting in death
Frontal Bone
Forms forehead and part
of the roof of the cranium
Forms roof of the orbit
Contains frontal sinus
Parietal Bone
Forms cranial roof and
part of its lateral walls
Bordered by 4 sutures
coronal, sagittal, lambdoid
and squamous
Marked by temporal lines
of temporalis muscle
Temporal lines
Temporal Bone
Forms lateral wall & part
of floor of cranial cavity
squamous part
zygomatic process
mandibular fossa & TMJ
tympanic part
external auditory meatus
styloid process for muscle
attachment
mastoid part
mastoid process
mastoiditis from ear infection
mastoid notch
digastric muscle

Petrous Portion of Temporal Bone
Forms part of cranial floor
separates middle from
posterior cranial fossa
Houses middle and inner
ear cavities
receptors for hearing and
sense of balance
internal auditory meatus is
opening for CN VII
(vestibulocochlear nerve)

Openings in Temporal Bone
Carotid canal
passage for internal
carotid artery supplying
the brain
Jugular foramen
irregular opening between
temporal & occipital
bones
passageway for drainage
of blood from brain to
internal jugular vein
Occipital Bone
Rear & much of base of skull
Foramen magnum holds spinal
cord
Skull rests on atlas at occipital
condyles
Hypoglossal canal transmits
hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)
supplying tongue muscles
External occipital protuberance
for nuchal ligament
Nuchal lines mark neck muscles

Sphenoid Bone
Lesser wing
Greater wing
Body of sphenoid
Medial and lateral
pterygoid processes
Sphenoid Bone
Body of the sphenoid
sella turcica contains deep
pit (hypophyseal fossa)
houses pituitary gland
Lesser wing
optic foramen contains optic
nerve & ophthalmic a.
Greater wing -- 3 foramen
foramen rotundum & ovale
for brs. trigeminal nerve
foramen spinosum for
meningeal artery
Sphenoid Bone
Sphenoid sinus
Ethmoid Bone
Between the orbital cavities
Forms lateral walls and roof of nasal
cavity
Cribriform plate & crista galli
Ethmoid air cells form ethmoid sinus
Perpendicular plate forms part of
nasal septum
Concha or turbinates on lateral wall





Ethmoid Bone
Superior & middle concha
Perpendicular plate of nasal
septum
Maxillary Bones
Forms upper jaw
alveolar processes are bony points
between teeth
alveolar sockets hold teeth
Forms inferomedial wall of orbit
infraorbital foramen
Forms anterior 2/3s
of hard palate
incisive foramen
cleft palate
Locations of Paranasal Sinuses
Maxillary sinus fills maxillae bone
Other bones containing sinuses are frontal, ethmoid &
sphenoid.
Ethmoid
Maxillary
Sphenoid
Frontal

Palatine Bones
L-shaped bone
Posterior 1/3 of the hard
palate
Part of lateral nasal wall
Part of the orbital floor

Zygomatic Bones
Forms angles of the
cheekbones and part of
lateral orbital wall
Zygomatic arch is formed
from zygomatic bone and
zygomatic process of
temporal bone
Lacrimal Bones
Form part of medial wall
of each orbit
Lacrimal fossa houses
lacrimal sac in life
tears collect in lacrimal
sac and drain into nasal
cavity
Nasal Bones
Forms bridge of nose and
supports cartilages of
nose
Often fractured by blow
to the nose
Inferior Nasal Conchae
A separate bone
Not part of ethmoid like
the superior & middle
concha or turbinates
Vomer
Inferior half of the nasal
septum
Supports cartilage of
nasal septum
Mandible
Only bone of the skull that can move
jaw joint formed between mandibular fossa
of temporal bone & condyloid process
Holds the lower teeth
Attachment of muscles of mastication
temporalis muscle onto coronoid process
masseter muscle onto angle of mandible
Mandibular foramen
Mental foramen
Auditory ossicles
malleus
incus
stapes
Hyoid bone
suspended from styloid
process of skull by
stylohyoid muscle and
ligament
greater & lesser cornua
Bones Associated With the Skull
The Skull in Infancy & Childhood
Spaces between unfused skull
bones called fontanels
filled with fibrous membrane
allow shifting of bones during
birth & growth of brain in
infancy
fuse by 2 years of age
2 frontal bones fuse by age six
metopic suture
Skull reaches adult size by 8 or
9 causing heads of children to
be larger in proportion to trunk


General Features of the Vertebral Column
33 vertebrae & discs of
fibrocartilage between them
Five vertebral groups
7 cervical in the neck
12 thoracic in the chest
5 lumbar in lower back
5 sacral fused into the sacrum
4 coccygeal fused into
coccyx
Newborn Spinal Curvature
Spine exhibits one
continuous C-shaped
curve
Known as primary
curvature
Adult Spinal Curvatures
S-shaped vertebral column
with 4 curvatures
Secondary curvatures
develop after birth
lifting head as it begins to
crawl develops cervical
curvature
walking upright develops
lumbar curvature
Abnormal Spinal Curvatures
Result from disease,
posture, paralysis or
congenital defect
Scoliosis from lack
of proper
development of one
vertebrae
Kyphosis is from
osteoporosis
Lordosis is from
weak abdominal
muscles

General Structure of a Vertebra
Body
Series of vertebral foramen
form the vertebral canal
Neural arch
2 lamina
2 pedicles
Processes
spinous
transverse
articular (superior & inferior)
Intervertebral Foramen & Discs
Intervertebral foramen
formed from vertebral
notches of adjacent vertebrae
passageway for spinal nerves
Intervertebral discs
bind vertebrae together
absorb shock
inner gelatinous nucleus
pulposus surrounded by
annulus fibrosus (ring of
fibrocartilage)
herniated disc puts pressure
on spinal nerve or spinal cord
Typical Cervical Vertebrae
Smaller body and larger vertebral foramen (opening)
Transverse process short with transverse foramen for
protection of vertebral arteries
Bifid or forked spinous process in C2 to C6

The Unique Atlas and Axis
Atlas (C1) supports the skull
concave superior articular facet
nod your head in yes movement
ring surrounding large vertebral
foramen
anterior & posterior arch
Axis (C2)
dens or odontoid process is held in
place inside the vertebral foramen of
the atlas by ligaments
allows rotation of head -- no
Atlas & Axis Articulation
Typical Thoracic Vertebrae
More massive body than cervical but smaller lumbar
Spinous processes pointed and angled downward
Superior articular facets face posteriorly permitting some
rotation between adjacent vertebrae
Rib attachment
facets & demifacets on vertebral body and costal facets at ends
of transverse processes for articulation of tubercle of ribs 1 to 10

Lumbar Vertebrae
Thick, stout body and blunt, squarish spinous process
Superior articular processes face medially
lumbar region resistant to twisting movements

Sacrum (Anterior View)
5 separate sacral
vertebrae fuse by age
26
Anterior surface
smooth & concave
sacral foramina were
intervertebral foramen
nerves & blood vessels
4 transverse lines indicate
line of fusion of vertebrae
Sacrum (Posterior View)
Rough surface of sacrum
Spinous processes have
fused into median sacral
crest
Transverse processes fuse
into lateral sacral crest
Posterior sacral foramina
Sacral canal ends as sacral
hiatus
Auricular surface is part of
sacroiliac joint
Coccyx
Single, small, triangular bone
4 small vertebrae fused by age of 30
Co1 to Co4
Provides attachment site for
muscles of pelvic floor
Cornua
hornlike projections on Co1 for
ligaments attach coccyx to sacrum
Fractured by fall or during
childbirth
Thoracic Cage
Consists of thoracic
vertebrae, sternum & ribs
Attachment site for
pectoral girdle and many
limb muscles
Protects many organs
Rhythmically expanded by
respiratory muscles to
draw air into the lungs
Rib Structure
Flat blade called a shaft
inferior margin has costal groove for
nerves & vessels
Proximal head & tubercle are
connected by neck
Articulation
head with body of vertebrae
tubercle with transverse process
Tubercle Head
True and False Ribs
True ribs (1 to 7) attach
to sternum with hyaline
cartilage



False ribs (8-12)
11-12 are floating and not
attached to sternum

There are 12 sets of ribs

Pectoral Girdle
Attaches upper extremity to the body
Scapula and clavicle
Clavicle attaches medially to the sternum and
laterally to the scapula
sternoclavicular joint
acromioclavicular joint
Scapula articulates with the humerus
glenohumeral or shoulder joint
easily dislocated because of its loose attachment
Clavicle
S-shaped bone, flattened dorsoventrally
Inferior surface marked by muscle & ligament attachments
Sternal end is rounded -- acromial end is flattened

Scapula
Triangular plate that dorsally overlies ribs 2 to 7
Spine ends as acromion process
Coracoid process for muscle attachment
Subscapular, infraspinous and supraspinous fossa
Glenoid fossa is shallow socket for head of humerus
Upper Limb
30 bones per limb
Brachium or arm contains the humerus
Antebrachium or forearm contains the radius &
ulna (radius on thumb side)
Carpus or wrist contains 8 small bones arranged
in two rows
Manus or hand contains 19 bones in 2 groups
5 metacarpals in the palm
14 phalanges in the fingers
Humerus
Hemispherical head forms shoulder
joint above anatomical neck
Muscles attach to greater & lesser
tubercles and deltoid tuberosity
Intertubercular groove holds biceps
tendon
Rounded capitulum articulates with
radius
Pulleylike trochlea articulates with
ulna
Olecranon fossa holds olecranon
process of ulna in straightened arm
Forearm muscles attach to medial &
lateral epicondyles
Ulna and Radius
Radius
head is disc that rotates freely
during pronation & supination
articulates with the capitulum
radial tuberosity for biceps muscle
Ulna
olecranon and trochlear notch form
proximal end
radial notch holds head of ulna
Interosseous membrane
ligament attaches radius to ulna
along interosseous margin of each
bone


Carpal Bones
Form the wrist
allows flexion, extension,
abduction & adduction
2 rows of 4 bones each
proximal row is scaphoid,
lunate, triquetral &
pisiform
distal row is trapezium,
trapezoid, capitate &
hamate
Metacarpals and Phalanges
Phalanges are bones of
the fingers
thumb or pollex has
proximal & distal phalanx
fingers have proximal,
middle & distal phalanx
Metacarpals are bones of
the palm
base, shaft & head

Pelvic Girdle
Composed of 4 bones:
right & left os coxae,
sacrum and coccyx
Supports trunk on the legs
& protects viscera
Each os coxae is joined to
the vertebral column at the
sacroiliac joint
Anteriorly, pubic bones are joined by pad of fibrocartilage
to form pubic symphysis
False and true pelvis are separated at pelvic brim
Infants head passes through pelvic inlet & outlet
Os Coxae (Hip Bone)
Acetabulum is hip joint socket
Ilium is superior portion
iliac crest and iliac fossa
greater sciatic notch contains sciatic nerve
Pubis is anterior portion
body, superior and inferior ramus
Ischium is posterolateral portion
ischial tuberosity bears body weight if sit
ischial spine
lesser sciatic notch lies between ischial spine & tuberosity
ischial ramus joins inferior pubic ramus
Comparison of Male & Female
Female less massive, pubic arch greater than 100
degrees, and pubic inlet round or oval
Male heavier, upper pelvis nearly vertical, coccyx more
vertical, and pelvic inlet heart-shaped
Femur
Nearly spherical head &
constricted neck
ligament to fovea capitis
Greater & lesser trochanters
for muscle attachment
Posterior ridge called linea
aspera
Medial & lateral condyles
and epicondyles found
distally
Smooth patellar surface on
anterior femur
Patella and Tibia
Patella is triangular sesamoid
bone
Tibia is thick, strong weight-
bearing bone on medial side of
leg
broad superior head with 2 flat
articular surfaces
medial & lateral condyles
roughened anterior surface can be
palpated below the patella
(tibial tuberosity)
distal expansion is medial
malleolus

Fibula
Slender lateral strut that
helps stabilize the ankle
Does not bear any of the
bodys weight
use as spare bone tissue to
replace bone elsewhere
Head is proximal end
Lateral malleolus is distal
expansion
The Ankle and Foot
Tarsal bones are shaped & arranged
differently from carpal bones due to
load-bearing role of the ankle
Talus is most superior tarsal bone
forms ankle joint with tibia & fibula
sits upon calcaneus & articulates with
navicular
Calcaneus forms heel (achilles tendon)
Distal row of tarsal bones
cuboid, 1st, 2nd & 3rd cuneiforms
The Foot
Remaining bones of foot are similar
in name & arrangement to the hand
Metatarsal I is proximal to the great
toe (hallux)
base, shaft and head
Phalanges
2 in great toe
proximal and distal
3 in all other toes
proximal, middle & distal
Foot Arches
Sole of foot does not normally
rest flat on the ground
3 springy arches absorb stress of
walking
medial longitudinal arch extends
from heel to hallux
lateral longitudinal arch extends
from heel to little toe
transverse arch extends across the
middle of the foot
Arches held together by short,
strong ligaments
pes planis (flat feet)
Skeletal Adaptations for Bipedalism
Skeletal Adaptations for Bipedalism