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Sexual Reproduction

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
69 views41 pages

Sexual Reproduction

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api-406307933
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Sexual Reproduction

 Asexual reproduction involves only one


parent and no sex cells are formed.

 Sexual reproduction involves the union of two


sex cells (gametes).

 Gametes are haploid cells capable of fusion.


 The receptacle is where the different parts of
the flower arise from and it gives them
support.

 Sepals are leaf-like structures that protect the


flower when it is a bud.

 Petals are usually large and brightly coloured


in animal pollinated plants in order to attract
animals.
◦ They are small (or absent) and green in wind
pollinated plants.
 Stamens are the male parts of the flower.
◦ The filament is a thin stalk containing a vascular
bundle to bring food and water to the anther.
◦ The anther produces pollen grains on its inside as a
result of meiosis.

 Carpels are the female parts of the flower.


◦ The stigma is where the pollen lands.
◦ The style is where the pollen tube grows through.
◦ The ovary contains one or more ovules.
 Pollen grains produce male gametes.

 The embryo sac produces an egg cell and


polar nuclei.
Higher Level
 An anther consists of four chambers called
pollen sacs.
 Each pollen sac is protected by a fibrous
layer.
 The tapetum is a layer of cells that provide a
food store for the cell divisions in the pollen
sac.
 There is a layer of microspore mother cells
inside the pollen sac.
◦ These form the pollen grains.
1. Inside the pollen sacs, microspore mother
cells (2n) divide by meiosis to produce 4
pollen grains called microspores (n).
2. Before being released each microspore (n)
undergoes mitosis to produce two nuclei.
3. One nucleus becomes a tube nucleus (n) and
the other becomes a generative nucleus (n).
◦ The generative nucleus will later form 2 male
gametes.
4. When the pollen grains have matured the
anther dries and splits exposing them to the
outside of the anther.
Higher Level
 Each ovary contains one or more ovules.
 An ovule has two walls called integuments.
 There is a small opening between the
integuments called a micropyle.
◦ The pollen tube enters through this.
 Most of the ovule is made up of nucellus cells
(2n) that supply nutrients for growth in the
ovule.
 One cell down low in the ovule is called the
megaspore mother cell (2n).
1. The megaspore mother cell (2n) divides by
meiosis to form 4 haploid cells.
◦ Three of these cells disintegrate.
◦ The remaining cell is called the embryo sac
(megaspore).
2. The nucleus of the megaspore (n) divides by
mitosis three times to form 8 nuclei (n).
◦ These remain in the embryo sac which swells using
food from the nucellus.
◦ Five of the nuclei will later disintegrate; the three
remaining nuclei are the female gametes.
3. Two of the female gametes form the polar
nuclei (n).
4. The remaining gamete forms a thin cell wall
and becomes the egg cell (n).
 Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an
anther to a stigma of a flower from the same
species.

 Self-pollination involves the transfer of pollen


from an anther to a stigma on the same
plant.

 Cross-pollination involves the transfer of


pollen from an anther to a stigma on a
different plant of the same species.
 There are two methods of pollination:
◦ Wind pollination.
◦ Animal (insect) pollination.

 Plants show many adaptations to suit their


method of pollination.
Structure Adaptations
Small, not brightly
Petals coloured, no scent, no
nectaries

Large amounts, light,


Pollen
small, dry, smooth

Anthers Large, outside petals

Large, feathery, outside


Stigmas
petals
Structure Adaptations

Large, brightly coloured,


Petals
scented, have nectaries

Small amounts, heavy,


Pollen
large, sticky, spiny

Usually small, inside


Anthers
petals

Usually small, sticky,


Stigmas
inside petals
 Fertilisation is the union of the male and
female gametes (n) to form a diploid zygote.
 Once pollination has occurred the tube
nucleus forms a pollen tube.
◦ This travels down the style to the ovule in the ovary.
 As the generative nucleus (n) moves down the
pollen tube it divides by mitosis to form 2
sperm nuclei (n).
◦ These are the male gametes.
 The tip of the pollen tube bursts open into
the embryo sac.
◦ The tube nucleus degenerates.
◦ The sperm nuclei enter the embryo sac.
 In flowering plants double fertilisation occurs.
◦ One sperm nucleus (n) fuses with the egg nucleus
(n) to form a diploid zygote (2n).
◦ The second sperm nucleus (n) fuses with the two
polar nuclei (both n) to form a triploid endosperm
nucleus (3n).
 The fertilised ovule becomes the seed.
 The integuments dry up and become the wall
of the seed called the testa.
 The zygote divides repeatedly by mitosis and
forms an embryo.
 An embryo consists of:
◦ The future root called the radicle.
◦ The future shoot called the plumule.
◦ Seed leaves called cotyledons which are used as a
food store.
 The endosperm nucleus (3n) divides by
mitosis repeatedly to produce many
endosperm cells.
◦ These cells expand and absorb the nucellus, the
endosperm acts as a food store.
 A non-endospermic seed has no endosperm
when fully formed.
◦ In these seeds the cotyledons absorb the
endosperm.
 An endospermic seed contains some
endosperm when fully formed.
◦ The cotyledons only absorb some of the endosperm
in these seeds.
Non-endospermic seed

Endospermic seed
 Monocots (monocotyledons) are plants in
which the seed has only one seed leaf
(cotyledon) e.g. cereals and grasses.
◦ Monocots rarely store food in the cotyledon.
◦ The growing embryo absorbs food stored in the
endosperm.

 Dicots (dicotyledons) have two seed leaves


(cotyledons) in each seed e.g. peanuts and
broad beans.
◦ In dicots food is stored in the cotyledons.
 As the seed develops the ovary becomes the
fruit.
 A fruit is a mature ovary that may contain
seeds.
◦ The process of fruit formation is stimulated by
growth regulators produced by the seeds.
 Seedless fruit can be formed in two ways:
◦ Genetically – either naturally or by special breeding
programmes e.g. bananas, pineapples etc.
◦ Chemically – plants are sprayed with growth
regulators (e.g. auxins) and the ovaries develop into
fruit e.g. seedless grapes.
 Dispersal is the transfer of a seed or fruit
away from the parent plant.

 Dispersal is necessary to:


◦ Avoid competition
◦ Find new areas for growth
◦ Increase the chance of survival

 Methods of dispersal include:


◦ Wind
◦ Water
◦ Animal
◦ Self
 Wind – fruits dispersed by the wind are light
and may be winged or have hairy tufts so
they can be carried further by the wind e.g.
dandelions and sycamore.
 Water – fruits dispersed by water are light and
air-filled which allows them to float and be
carried away by water e.g. water lilies and
coconuts.
 Animal – these plants can have either edible
or sticky fruits.
◦ Edible fruits attract animals and their seeds pass
through the digestive system unharmed e.g.
strawberries.
◦ Sticky fruits have hooks that stick to the coat of
animals and are carried away e.g. goose grass.
 Self – some fruits explode when they dry out
and catapult the seeds away e.g. peas.
 Dormancy is a resting period when seeds
undergo no growth and have reduced cell
activity or metabolism.

 Advantages of dormancy:
◦ Plants avoid harsh winter conditions.
◦ It gives the embryo time to develop.
◦ It provides time for dispersal.
 It may be necessary to break the dormancy of
some seeds before they are planted.

 Some seeds need a period of cold before they


can germinate.
◦ This can be done by placing them in a fridge before
they are planted.
 Germination is the re-growth of the embryo,
after a period of dormancy, if the
environmental conditions are suitable.

 The factors necessary for germination are:


◦ Water – this is needed to allow enzyme reactions to
occur.
◦ Oxygen – needed for aerobic respiration.
◦ Suitable Temperature – needed to allow enzyme
reactions to take place.
◦ Dormancy must be complete.
1. The seed absorbs water.
2. Stored foods are digested to simpler forms
by enzymes in the seed.
3. Digested foods are transferred from the
endosperm or cotyledon(s) to the embryo.
4. Some digested foods make new structures;
some are used in respiration to make ATP.
5. The radicle grows and burst out through the
testa.
6. The plumule emerges above ground and new
leaves form.
 As the seed germinates it uses the stored
food for respiration and growth.
 This results in a drop in the mass of the seed.
 When the seedling begins to photosynthesise
the mass will increase again.
 The mass of the embryo increases as the
mass of the cotyledon decreases.
◦ This is due to the food in the cotyledon being used
for growth.
Hypogeal Germination
 Hypogeal germination is when the cotyledon
remains below ground during germination.
Epigeal Germination
 Epigeal germination is when the cotyledons
are raised above ground during germination.

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