MECHANICAL

GROUP 2
SENSOR
INTRODUCTION
 DISPLACEMENT, LOCATION OR
POSITION SENSORS
•Important when it comes to the process in industries
a) in location and position of objects on conveyor system
b) orientation of steel plates in a rolling mill
c) liquid/solid level measurements
d) location and position of work piece in automatic
milling operations
e) conversion of pressure to a physical displacement that is
measured to indicate pressure
•POTENTIOMETER
- simplest type of displacement sensor involves the action of
displacement or moving the wiper of a potentiometer
- converts linear or angular motion into a changing resistance
that may be converted directly to voltage and/or current signals
•INDUCTANCE
- every new position of the core produces a different
inductance. In this fashion, the inductor and movable core
assembly may be used as a displacement sensor.
•Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
- most common and extensively used for the measure of both
translational and angular displacement
- an important and common sensor for displacement in the
industrial environment.
•Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
- consists of three coils of wire wound on a hollow form
•LinearVariable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
- differential amplitude Is form to increase linearly as
the core is moved to one or the other
- consists primarily of circuits that perform a phase-
sensitive detection of the differential secondary voltage
Figure shows a simple circuit for providing such an
output.
 Figure above shows a more practical detection scheme, typically
provided as a single integrated circuit (IC) manufactured specifically
for LVDTs
• Mechanical Electrical
- the most common techniques - There are several purely electrical
for level measurement, methods of measuring level; i.e.
particularly for liquids, is a float inherent conductivity to vary the
that is allowed to ride up and resistance seen by probes
down with level changes
Ultrasonic Pressure
- is favored because it is a - is based on the well-known
relationship between pressure
"noninvasive" technique at the bottom of a tank, and the
height and density of the liquid.
 STRAIN SENSORS
STRAIN AND STRESS
• Strain - the result of the application of
forces to solid objects.
• Stress – the effect of applied force.
 STRAIN AND STRESS
• Tensile Stress- Strain
• Compressional Stress- Strain
• Shear Stress- Strain
• Stress- Strain Curve
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
Material Modulus (N/m2)
Aluminium 6.89 x 1010
Copper 11.73 x 1010
Steel 20.70 x 1010
Polyethylene 3.45 x 1010
 STRAIN UNITS
• Strain is a unit less quantity but , it is
common practice to express the strain as
the ratio of the two length units because
the strain is usually a very small number.
MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES

• The basic technique of strain gauge

measurement involves attaching a metal
wire or foil to the element whose strain is to
be measured.
 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
• The metals used in strain gauge
construction have linear temperature
coefficients of α ≅ 0.004 °C, typical for most
metals.
 METAL STRAIN GAUGES
• Gauge Factor - The relation between strain and
resistance change is only approximately true.
• Construction - Strain gauges are used in two forms,
wire and foil. The basic characteristics of each type
are the same in terms of resistance change for a
given strain.
• Signal Conditioning - Two effects are critical in the
signal- conditioning techniques used for strain
gauges.
METAL STRAIN GAUGES
 SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGES
• Principle - The basic effect is a change of resistance
with strain.
• Gauge Factor - The devices are highly nonlinear in
resistance versus strain. The value of the
semiconductor gauge factor varies between -50 and -
200.
• Construction - The semiconductor strain gauge
physically appears as a band or strip of material with
electrical connection.
SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGES
 LOAD CELLS
• A transducer that measures deformations produced by the
force or weight.
• A beam or yoke assembly is used that has several strain
gauges mounted so that the application of a force causes a
strain the assembly that is measured by the gauges.
• Practical load cells are made with yoke assembles designed
so that mounted strain gauges cannot be exposed to
stresses other than those caused by the compressional
force applied to the cell.
 MOTION SENSORS
• It is designed to measure the rate of change of position,
location, or placement of an object that is occurring.
TYPES OF MOTION
• Rectilinear
• Angular
• Vibration
• Shock
RECTILINEAR
• This type of motion is characterized
by velocity and acceleration, which is
composed of straight-line segment.
• Objects may accelerate forward to a
certain velocity, deaccelerate to a
stop, reverse and so on.
ANGULAR

Some sensors are designed to

measure only rotations about some
axis, such as the angular motion of
the shaft of a motor.
VIBRATION
• The measurement of acceleration of
this magnitude is very important to
industrial environments, where
vibrations are often encountered
from machinery operations.

• If an object is placed in periodic

motion about some equilibrium
position, in fig. 5-18 very large peak
accelerations may result that reach
100 g or more.
 SHOCK
• Occurs when an object that may be in
uniform motion or modestly
accelerating is suddenly brought to
rest, as in a collision.

• The name shock is given to

This graph is characterized by a decelerations that are characterized
maximum or peak deceleration of a by very short time, typically in the
shock duration Td bouncing. order of milliseconds, with peak
accelerations over 500 g.
ACCELERATION PRINCIPLE
• In applications that involve flight, such as aircraft and satellites,
acceleration are based on properties of rotating masses.
TYPES OF ACCELEROMETERS
• Potentiometric
• LVDT
• Variable Reluctance
• Piezoelectric
POTENTIOMETRIC
• Measure mass motion by attaching the spring mass to the wiper
arm of a potentiometer.
• In this manner, the mass position is conveyed as a changing
resistance.
• Natural frequency of these devices is generally less than 30 Hz,
limiting their application to steady-state acceleration or low-
frequency vibration measurement.
 LVDT
• Takes advantage of the natural linear
displacement measurement of the LVDT to
measure mass displacement.
• LVDT core itself is the seismic mass.
• Have a natural frequency less than 80 Hz
and are commonly used for steady-state and
low-frequency vibration.
It shows the basic structure of such an
accelerometer.
VARIABLE RELUCTANCE
• The same general category as the LVDT in that an inductive principle
is employed.
• The test mass is usually a permanent magnet.
• Used in vibration and shock studies only because it has an output
only when the mass is in motion.
• Natural frequency is typically less than 100 Hz.
• Often used in oil exploration to pick up vibrations reflected from
underground rock strata. It is commonly referred to as a geophone.
PIEZOELECTRIC
• It is based on a property Exhibit
by certain crystal where a voltage
is generated across the crystal
when stressed.

• The basis for such familiar sensors

as crystal phonograph cartridges
A piezoelectric accelerometer has
a very high natural frequency and crystal microphones.
 APPLICATION
STEADY- STATE ACCELERATION
• The measure of acceleration that may vary in time but that
is nonperiodic.
• Ex: Stop Go Motion of an automobile
• Adequate range to cover expected accelerating magnitudes
• A natural frequency sufficiently high that its period is
shorter than its characteristic time span over which the
measured acceleration change.
VIBRATION

• It requires that the applied frequency is less than the

natural frequency of the accelerometer.
• One must be sure the stated range of the acceleration
measured will never exceed that of the specification.
SHOCK
• The primary elements of importance are the device have a
natural frequency that is greater than 1 kHz and a range
typically greater than 500 g.
 PRESSURE SENSORS
• The measurement and control of fluid (liquid or gas) pressure has
to be one of the common in all the process industries.
• Because of the great variety of conditions, range of materials for
which pressure sensor designs.
• Pressure measurement is accomplished by conversion of the
pressure information to some intermediate form, such as
displacement, which is then measured by as to determine the
pressure
PRESSURE PRINCIPLE
• Pressure is simply the force per unit area that a fluid
exerts on its surroundings.
• If the fluid is gas, the pressure of the gas is the force per
unit area that the gas exerts on the way the container
that holds it.
• If the fluid is a liquid, then the pressure is the force per
unit area that the liquid exerts on the container in which
it is contained.
• STATIC PRESSURE
- the pressure in cases where no motion is occurring.

• DYNAMIC PRESSURE
- if a fluid is in motion, the pressure that it exerts on
surroundings depends on the motion.

Pressure can depend on flow, compressibility of the fluid, external forces, and
numerous other factors
• UNITS
- Since pressure is force per unit area, we describe it in
the SI system or by Newton’s per square meter.
- This unit has named the Pascal (Pa), so that Pa is 1
N/square meters.
- This is not a very convenient unit.
- It is often used injunction with the SI standard prefixes,
as kPa, or Mpa.
• GAUGE PRESSURE
- It is more appropriate to describe pressure I a
relative sense, that is, compared to atmospheric
pressure.
 FLOW SENSORS
• The measurement and control of flow can be said to be the
heart of process industries.
• Continuously operating manufacturing processes involve the
movement of raw materials, products and wastes throughout
the process are considered as flow.
• They are considered on three broad fronts
- Solid
- Liquid
- Gas
 SOLID FLOW MEASUREMENT

A common solid flow conveyor

occurs when material in the form
of small particles is carried by a
conveyor belt system or by some
other host material.
Fig. 5.22 – Conveyor system for illustrating solid
flow measurement
SOLID FLOW MEASUREMENT
For solid objects, flow is
described as mass per unit
time it is being transported
by conveyor system.
Knowing the speed allows
the calculation of material
flow.
 LIQUID & GAS FLOW MEASUREMENT

It is involved in nearly facet of the process

industries, as in measuring liquid flow and how to
interpret the results of flow measurements.
 PIPE FLOW PRINCIPLES

Flow rate of liquids in pipes

is determined by the
pressure that forcing the
liquid through the pipe.

Fig. 5.23 – Flow through a pipe is determined in

part by the pressure due to the head
RESTRICTION FLOW SENSOR

Introducing a restriction in
the pipe and measuring
the pressure drop that
results across the
restriction.
 OBSTRUCTION FLOW SENSOR

• In all this methods, it is necessary to present a substantial

obstruction into the flow path to measure the flow.
• This type of sensor is used for both liquids and gases.
• Used only when an obstruction does not cause any
unwanted reaction on the flow system.
OBSTRUCTION FLOW SENSORS

Rotameter
In this type, obstruction is a flow that
rises in vertical column. The lifting
force is produced in differential
pressure because it is a restriction in
the float.
OBSTRUCTION FLOW SENSORS

Moving Vane Flowmeter

It has a variable target immersed in
the flow region, which is rotated
out of the flow as velocity
increases.
OBSTRUCTION FLOW SENSORS

Turbine Type
It is composed of freely spinning
turbine blade assembly in the flow
path. The turbine is attached to a
tachometer, where electric signals
are produced.
MAGNETIC FLOW METER

Charged particles present in flowing

liquid move across the magnetic
field, a potential is established
across the flow, perpendicular to the
magnetic field, and the flow can be
measured.
-END-