Three-Phase Power

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 Typical Transformer Yard

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 Introduction
Almost all electric power generation and most of the power
transmission in the world is in the form of three-phase AC circuits.
A three-phase AC system consists of three-phase generators,
transmission lines, and loads.

There are two major advantages of three-phase systems over a

single-phase system:
1) More power per kilogram of metal form a three-phase
machine;
2) Power delivered to a three-phase load is constant at all time,
instead of pulsing as it does in a single-phase system.

The first three-phase electrical system was patented in 1882 by

John Hopkinson - British physicist, electrical engineer, Fellow
of the Royal Society.

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 Basic Three-Phase Circuit

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 What is Three-Phase Power?

• Three sinusoidal voltages of equal

amplitude and frequency out of phase with
each other by 120°. Known as “balanced”.
• Phases are labeled A, B, and C.
• Phases are sequenced as A, B, C
(positive) or A, C, B (negative).

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 Three-Phase Power

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 Definitions

• 4 wires
– 3 “active” phases, A, B, C
– 1 “ground”, or “neutral”
• Color Code
– Phase A Red
– Phase B Black
– Phase C Blue
– Neutral White or Gray

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 Phasor (Vector) Form for abc
Vc=Vm/+120°

Va=Vm/0°

Vb=Vm/-120°

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 Phasor (Vector) Form for abc
Vc=Vm/+120°

Va=Vm/0°

Vb=Vm/-120°
Note that KVL applies .... Va+Vb+Vc=0
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 Three-Phase Generator

• 2-pole (North-South)
rotor turned by a
“prime mover”
• Sinusoidal voltages
are induced in each
stator winding

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 How are the sources connected?

• (a) shows the sources

(phases) connected in
a wye (Y).
– Notice the fourth
terminal, known as
Neutral.
• (b) shows the sources
(phases) connected in
a delta (∆).
– Three terminals

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 Look at a Y-Y System

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 Definitions
• Zg represents the internal
generator impedance per
phase
• Zl represents the
impedance of the line
connecting the generator
to the load
• ZA,B,C represents the load
impedance per phase
• Zo represents the
impedance of the neutral
conductor

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 Look at the Line and Load Voltages

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 VAB  VAN  VBN
Line Voltages VBC  VBN  VCN Phase Voltages

VCA  VCN  VAN

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 Vector addition to find VAB=VAN-VBN

-VBN

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 Using the Tip-to-Tail Method

-VBN

VΦ = Line-to-Neutral,
or Phase Voltage

VAB = VAN – VBN = √3VΦ

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 Conclusions for the Y connection

• The amplitude of the line-to-line voltage is

equal to √3 times the amplitude of the
phase voltage.
• The line-to-line voltages form a balanced
set of 3-phase voltages.
• The set of line-to-line voltages leads the
set of line-to-neutral (phase) voltages by
30°.

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 Summary

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 Look at the Delta-Connected Load

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 I AB  I 0
I BC  I   120
I CA  I 120
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 I aA  I AB  I CA
Line Currents I bB  I BC  I AB Phase Currents

I cC  I CA  I BC

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 Vector Addition to find IaA=IAB-ICA

-ICA

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 Using the Tip-to-Tail Method

-ICA

IaA = √3IΦ/-30°

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 Conclusions for the Delta Connection

• The amplitude of the line current is equal

to √3 times the phase current.
• The set of line currents lags the phase
currents by 30°.

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 Generation of three-phase voltages
and currents
We can connect the negative (ground) ends of the three single-
phase generators and loads together, so they share the common
return line (neutral).
 Generation of three-phase voltages
and currents
As long as the three loads are equal, the return current in
the neutral is zero!
Such three-phase power systems (equal magnitude, phase differences
of 1200, identical loads) are called balanced.
In a balanced system, the neutral is unnecessary!

Phase Sequence is the order in which the voltages in the individual

phases peak.

ab ac
 Power relationships
For a balanced Y-connected load with the impedance Z = Z0:
 Power relationships

The instantaneous
power in phases.

The total power

supplied to the load is
constant.
 Power relationships
Phase quantities in each phase of a Y- or -connection.

Real P  3V I cos  3I 2 Z cos

Reactive Q  3V I sin   3I 2 Z sin 

Apparent S  3V I  3I 2 Z

Note: these equations are valid

for balanced loads only.
 Power relationships
Power consumed
P  3V I
Line quantities: Y-connection. cos 
by a load:  

Since for this I L  I and VLL  3V

load VLL
P3 I L cos 
Therefore: 3

P  3VLL I L cos
Finally:
Note: these equations are valid
for balanced loads only.
 Power relationships
Power consumed
Line quantities: -connection.P  3V I cos 
 

by a load:
Since for this I L  3I and VLL  V

load IL
P3 VLL cos 
Therefore: 3

Finally: P  3VLL I L cos

Same as for a Y-connected load!

Note: these equations were
derived for a balanced load.
 Power relationships
Line quantities: Y- and -connection.

Reactive power
Q  3VLL I L sin 

Apparent power S  3VLL I L

Note:  is the angle between the phase voltage and the phase
current – the impedance angle.
 Analysis of balanced systems
We can determine voltages, currents, and
powers at various points in a balanced
circuit.

Consider a Y-connected generator and load

via three-phase transmission line.

For a balanced Y-connected system,

insertion of a neutral does not change the
system.
All three phases are identical except of 1200
shift. Therefore, we can analyze a single
phase (per-phase circuit).

Limitation: not valid for -connections…

 Analysis of balanced systems
A -connected circuit can be analyzed via the transform of
impedances by the Y- transform. For a balanced load, it
states that a -connected load consisting of three equal
impedances Z is equivalent to a Y-connected load with the
impedances Z/3. This equivalence implies that the voltages,
currents, and powers supplied to both loads would be the
same.
 Analysis of balanced systems:
Example:
for a 208-V three-
phase ideally balanced
system, find:
a) the magnitude of
the line current IL;
b) The magnitude of
the load’s line and
phase voltages VLL
and VL;
c) The real, reactive,
and the apparent
powers consumed
by the load;
d) The power factor of
the load.
 Analysis of balanced systems:
Both, the generator and the load are Y-
connected, therefore, it’s easy to construct
a per-phase equivalent circuit…
Btw: is the load inductive or
capacitive??
a) The line current:
V 12000 12000 12000
IL      7.94  37.10
 A
Z L  Zload (0.06  j 0.12)  (12  j9) 12.06  j9.12 15.1237.10

b) The phase voltage on

the load:
V L  I L Z L  (7.94  37.1 )(12  j9)  (7.94  37.10 )(1536.90 )  119.1  0.20 V
0

The magnitude of the line

voltage on the load: V  3V L  206.3V
LL
 Analysis of balanced systems:
c) The real power consumed by
the load:
Pload  3V I cos  3 119.1 7.94cos36.90  2270W
The reactive power consumed
by the load:
Qload  3V I sin   3 119.1 7.94sin 36.90  1702var
The apparent power consumed by
the load:
Sload  3V I  3 119.1 7.94  2839VA

d) The load power factor:

PFload  cos   cos 36.90  0.8lagging
 One-line diagrams

Since, in a balanced system, three

phases are similar except of the
1200 phase shift, power systems
are frequently represented by a
single line showing all three
phases of the real system.

This is a one-line diagram.

Such diagrams usually include all

the major components of a power
system: generators, transformers,
transmission lines, loads.
 Using the power triangle
If we can neglect the impedance of the transmission line,
an important simplification in the power calculation is
possible…
If the generator voltage in the system is
known, then we can find the current and
power factor at any point in the system as
follows:
1. The line voltages at the generator and the loads
will be identical since the line is lossless.
2. Real and reactive powers on each load.
3. The total real and reactive powers supplied to
all loads from the point examined.
4. The system power factor at that point using the
power triangle relationship.
5. Line and phase currents at that point.
We can treat the line voltage as constant and use the power triangle
method to quickly calculate the effect of adding a load on the overall system
and power factor.
 Power Factor Correction
• Power factor is particularly important in high-
power applications
• Inductive loads have a lagging power factor
• Capacitive loads have a leading power factor
• Many high-power devices are inductive
– a typical AC motor has a power factor of 0.9 lagging
– the total load on the national grid is 0.8-0.9 lagging
– this leads to major efficiencies
– power companies therefore penalise industrial users
who introduce a poor power factor

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 Problems in 3 phase power
Figure shows an ac voltage source supplying
power to a load with impedance Z = 20∟-30°
ohms. Calculate the current I supplied to the
load, the power factor of the load, and the real,
reactive, apparent. and complex power supplied
to the load.

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 Problem
• Figure shows a simple single-phase ac power system with three
loads. The voltage source is V = ∠° 120 0 V, and the three loads are
Z1 = 5∠ 30 ° Z2 = 5∠ 45 °Ω Z3 = 5∠− 90 °Ω
Answer the following questions about this power system.
(a) Assume that the switch shown in the figure is open, and calculate
the current I, the power factor, and the real, reactive, and apparent
power being supplied by the source.
(b) Assume that the switch shown in the figure is closed, and calculate
the current I, the power factor, and the real, reactive, and apparent
power being supplied by the source.
(c) What happened to the current flowing from the source when the
switch closed? Why?

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Figure shows a small 480-V distribution system. Assume that the lines
in the system have zero impedance.

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The power factor supplied by the utility is

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Figure shows a one-line diagram of a typical electrical power generation,
transmission, and distribution system.

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ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION. A generator is a machine that transforms
mechanical energy into electric power. Prime movers such as engines and
turbines convert thermal or hydraulic energy into mechanical power. Thermal
energy is derived from the fission of nuclear fuel or the burning of common
fuels such as oil, gas, or coal. The alternating current generating units of
electric power utilities generally consist of steam turbine generators, gas
combustion turbine generators, hydro (water) generators, and internal-
combustion engine generators.
Prime Movers. The prime movers used for utility power generation are
predominantly steam turbines and internal-combustion machines. High-
pressure/high-temperature and high-speed (1800 to 3600 rotational speed
(rpm)) steam turbines are used primarily in large industrial and utility power
generating stations. Internal-combustion machines are normally of the
reciprocating-engine type. The diesel engine is the most commonly used
internal-combustion machine, although some gasoline engines are also used.

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 Generators
• Generator Capacity: Turbine units can be built for almost any desired capacity. The
capacity of steam turbine driven generators in utility plants range from 5 MW to 1000
MW. Most of the installed steam turbine generators are rated less than 500 MW. Gas
turbine generators for electric power generation generally have capacities ranging
from 100 kW to 20 MW (but are used in multiple installations). The applications of gas
turbine generators include both continuous and peak load service. Diesel engine
generator sets have capacities ranging from 500 kW to 6500 kW. These units are
widely used in auxiliary or standby service in portable or stationary installations, but
they may be used as the primary power source in some locations. Smaller units
(steam turbine, gasoline, or diesel engine) are also available for special applications
or industrial plants.
• Generator Voltage. Large generators used by commercial utilities are usually
designed with output voltages rated between 11 and 18 kV. Industrial plant
generators are normally rated 2.4 kV to 13.8 kV, coinciding with standard distribution
voltages. The generated voltage is stepped up to higher levels for long distance
power transmission.
• Generator Frequency. Power generation in the United States is standardized at 60
Hz. The standard frequency is 50 Hz in most foreign countries. Generators operating
at higher frequencies are available for special applications.
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 Voltage and Frequency Controls.
• Voltage Control. The terminal voltage of a generator operating in isolation is a
function of the excitation on the rotor field winding. The generator output terminal
voltage is normally maintained at the correct level by an automatic voltage regulator
that adjusts the field current.
• Frequency Control. Electrical frequency is directly proportional to the rpm of the rotor
which is driven by the prime mover. Because of this relationship, prime movers are
controlled by governors that respond to variation in speed or frequency. The governor
is connected to the throttle control mechanism to regulate speed, accomplishing
frequency control automatically.
• Parallel Operation of Generators: Large power plants normally have more than one
generator in operation at the same time. When generators are to be paralleled, it is
necessary to synchronize the units before closing the paralleling circuit breaker. This
means that the generators must be brought to approximately the same speed, the
same phase rotation and position, and the same voltage. Proper synchronization is
accomplished with the aid of a synchroscope, an instrument which indicates the
difference in phase position and in frequency of two sources. Paralleling of
generators is accomplished either manually or automatically with one incoming unit at
a time.

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 AC Transmission
• The transmission system is the bulk power transfer system between
the power generation station and the distribution center from which
power is carried to customer delivery points. The transmission system
includes step-up and step-down transformers at the generating and
distribution stations, respectively. The transmission system is usually
part of the electric utility's network. Power transmission systems may
include subtransmission stages to supply intermediate voltage levels.
Subtransmission stages are used to enable a more practical or
economical transition between transmission and distribution systems.
Transmission Voltage. Usually, generated power is transformed in a substation,
located at the generating station, to 46 kV or more for transmission. Standard
nominal transmission system voltages are: 69 kV, 115 kV, 138 kV, 161 kV and
230 kV. Some transmission voltages, however, may be at 23 kV to 69 kV, levels
normally categorized as primary distribution system voltages. There are also a
few transmission networks operating in the extra-high-voltage class (345 kV to
765 kV).
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 Transmission Lines.
• Transmission lines supply distribution substations equipped with
transformers which step the high voltages down to lower levels. The
transmission of large quantities of power over long distances is more
economical at higher voltages. Power transmission at high voltage
can be accomplished with lower currents which lower the I2R
(Power) losses and reduce the voltage drop. The consequent use of
smaller conductors requires a lower investment. Standard power
transmission systems are 3-phase, 3-conductor, overhead lines with
or without a ground conductor. Transmission lines are classed as
unregulated because the voltage at the generating station is
controlled only to keep the lines operating within normal voltage
limits and to facilitate power flow.

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 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
• The transmission system voltage is stepped-down to lower levels by
distribution substation transformers. The primary distribution system
is that portion of the power network between the distribution
substation and the utilization transformers. The primary distribution
system consists of circuits, referred to as primary or distribution
feeders, that originate at the secondary bus of the distribution
substation. The distribution substation is usually the delivery point of
electric power in large industrial or commercial applications.
• Nominal System Voltages. Primary distribution system voltages
range from 2,400 V to 69,000 V. Some of the standard nominal
system voltages are given in the next slide.

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 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

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 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
• The primary distribution voltages in widest use are 12,470 V and
13,200 V, both three wire and four wire. Major expansion of
distribution systems below the 15 kV nominal level (12 kV - 14.4 kV)
is not recommended due to the increased line energy costs inherent
with lower voltage systems.
• Distribution Substations. A substation consists of one or more
power transformer banks together with the necessary voltage
regulating equipment, buses, and switchgear.
Substation Arrangements. A simple substation arrangement consists of
one incoming line and one transformer. More complicated substation
arrangements result when there are two or more incoming lines, two or
more power transformers, or a complex bus network.

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 Substation Bus Arrangements
• Substation Bus Arrangements. A bus is a junction of two or more
incoming and outgoing circuits. The most common bus arrangement
consists of one source or supply circuit and one or more feeder
circuits. The numerous other arrangements and variations are
mainly intended to improve the service reliability through the bus to
all or part of the load during scheduled maintenance or unexpected
power outages.
• The arrangements are normally referred to as:
(a) Double-bus.
(b) Two-source sectionalizing bus.
(c) Three-source sectionalizing bus.
(d) Star or synchronizing bus.

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 Substation Bus Arrangements

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 Substation Bus Arrangements

• When two sources are used simultaneously, but must

not be operated in parallel, a normally open bus-tie
circuit breaker is interlocked with the source circuit
breakers. This permits serving both bus sections from
one of the sources when the other is not available. For
normally parallel sources, a single straight bus may be
used. It is preferable, however, to use a normally closed
bus-tie circuit breaker to split the system so that service
continuity can be retained on either section when the
other section is out of service.

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 Substation Operation
• Substations may be attended by operators or designed for automatic or
remote control of the switching and voltage regulating equipment. Most
large new substations are either automatic or remotely controlled.
(a) In an automatic substation, switching operations are controlled by a
separately installed control system. Major apparatus, such as transformers and
converting equipment, may be placed in or taken out of service automatically.
Feeder circuit breakers, after being opened, can be reclosed by protective
relays or by the control system.
(b) Remote control substations are often within a suitable distance from
attended stations. In such cases pilot-wire cables provide the communication
link to receive indications of circuit breaker or switch positions and to transmit
control adjustments, as required. Microwave radio, telephone lines, and carrier
current are often used for remote-control links at distances beyond the
economic reach of pilot wire systems.

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 Types of Systems
• There are two fundamental types of primary distribution systems;
radial and network. Simply defined, a radial system has a single
simultaneous path of power flow to the load. A network has more
than one simultaneous path. Each of the two types of systems has a
number of variations. Figure illustrates four primary feeder
arrangements showing tie, loop, radial and parallel feeders. There
are other more complex systems, such as the primary network
(interconnected substations with feeders forming a grid) and dual-
service network (alternate feeder to each load). These systems,
however, are simply variations of the two basic feeder
arrangements .

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Functions and characteristics of the simpler feeder
arrangements.
• Tie Feeder. The main function of a tie feeder is to connect two sources. It may
connect two substation buses in parallel to provide service continuity for the load
supplied from each bus.
• Loop Feeder. A loop feeder has its ends connected to a source (usually a single
source), but its main function is to supply two or more load points in between. Each
load point can be supplied from either direction; so it is possible to remove any
section of the loop from service without causing an outage at other load points. The
loop can be operated normally closed or normally open. Most loop systems are,
however, operated normally open at some point by means of a switch. The operation
is very similar to that of two radial feeders.
• Radial Feeder. A radial feeder connects between a source and a load point, and it
may supply one or more additional load points between the two. Each load point can
be supplied from one direction only. Radial feeders are most widely used by the Navy
because the circuits are simple, easy to protect, and low in cost.
• Parallel Feeder. Parallel feeders connect the source and a load or load center and
provide the capability of supplying power to the load through one or any number of
the parallel feeders. Parallel feeders provide for maintenance of feeders (without
interrupting service to loads) and quick restoration of service when one of the feeders
fails.
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 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

• The secondary distribution system is that portion of the network

between the primary feeders and utilization equipment. The
secondary system consists of step-down transformers and
secondary circuits at utilization voltage levels. Residential secondary
systems are predominantly single-phase, but commercial and
industrial systems generally use three-phase power.
• Secondary Voltage Levels. The voltage levels for a particular
secondary system are determined by the loads to be served. The
utilization voltages are generally in the range of 120 to 600 V.
Standard nominal system voltages are given in the next slide.

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 Secondary Voltage Levels

In residential and rural areas the nominal supply is a 120/240 V, single-phase, three-wire
grounded system. If three-phase power is required in these areas, the systems are normally
208Y/120 V or less commonly 240/120 V. In commercial or industrial areas, where motor loads
are predominant, the common three-phase system voltages are 208Y/120 V and 480Y/277 V.
The preferred utilization voltage for industrial plants, however, is 480Y/277 V. Three-phase
power and other 480 V loads are connected directly to the system at 480 V and fluorescent
lighting is connected phase to neutral at 277 V. Small dry-type transformers, rated 480-
208Y/120 or 480-120/240 V, are used to provide 120 V single-phase for convenience outlets
and to provide 208 V single- and three-phase for small tools and other machinery.

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 Types of Systems.
• Various circuit arrangements are available for secondary power distribution.
The basic circuits are: simple radial system, expanded radial system,
primary selective system, primary loop system, secondary selective system,
and secondary spot network.
• Conventional Simple-Radial Distribution System. In the simple-radial system
(Figure 1) distribution is at the utilization voltage. A single primary service
and distribution transformer supply all the feeders. There is no duplication of
equipment. System investment is the lowest of all circuit arrangements.
Operation and expansion are simple. Reliability is high if quality
components are used, however, loss of a cable, primary supply, or
transformer will cut off service. Further, electrical service is interrupted when
any piece of service equipment must be deenergized to perform routine
maintenance and servicing.

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 Types of Systems
• Expanded Radial Distribution System: The advantages of the radial system may be
applied to larger loads by using a radial primary distribution system to supply a
number of unit substations located near the load centers with radial secondary
systems (Figure 2). The advantages and disadvantages are similar to those
described for the simple radial system.
• Primary Selective Distribution System. Protection against loss of a primary supply can
be gained through use of a primary selective system (Figure 3). Each unit substation
is connected to two separate primary feeders through switching equipment to provide
a normal and an alternate source. When the normal source feeder is out of service
for maintenance or a fault, the distribution transformer is switched, either manually or
automatically, to the alternate source. An interruption will occur until the load is
transferred to the alternate source. Cost is somewhat higher than for a radial system
because primary cable and switchgear are duplicated.

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 Types of Systems
• Loop Primary-Radial Distribution System. The loop primary system
(Figure 4) offers nearly the same advantages and disadvantages as
the primary selective system. The failure of the normal source of a
primary cable fault can be isolated and service restored by
sectionalizing. Finding a cable fault in the loop, however, may be
difficult and dangerous. The quickest way to find a fault is to
sectionalize the loop and reclose, possibly involving several
reclosings at the fault. A section may also be energized at both
ends, thus, effecting another potential danger. The cost of the
primary loop system may be somewhat less than that of the primary
selective system. The savings may not be justified, however, in view
of the disadvantages.

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 Types of Systems
• Secondary Selective-Radial Distribution System. When a pair of unit
substations are connected through a normally open secondary tie circuit
breaker, the result is a secondary selective-radial distribution system (Figure 5).
If the primary feeder or a transformer fails, the main secondary circuit breaker
on the affected transformer is opened and the tie circuit breaker is closed.
Operation may be manual or automatic. Normally, the stations operate as radial
systems.
• Maintenance of primary feeders, transformer, and main secondary circuit
breakers is possible with only momentary power interruption, or no interruption,
if the stations may be operated in parallel during switching. With the loss of one
primary circuit or transformer, the total substation load may be supplied by one
transformer. In this situation, however, if load shedding is to be avoided, both
transformers and each feeder must be oversized to carry the total load. A
distributed secondary selective system has pairs of unit substations in different
locations connected by tie cables and normally open tie circuit breakers. The
secondary selective system may be combined with the primary selective system
to provide a high degree of reliability.

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 Types of Systems

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 Types of Systems

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 Types of Systems

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 Secondary Network Distribution System

• In a secondary network distribution system, two or more distribution

transformers are each supplied from a separate primary distribution
feeder. The secondaries of the transformers are connected in
parallel through a special type of circuit breaker, called a network
protector, to a secondary bus. Radial secondary feeders are tapped
from the secondary bus to supply loads. A more complex network is
a system in which the low-voltage circuits are interconnected in the
form of a grid or mesh.
(a) If a primary feeder fails, or a fault occurs on a primary feeder or
distribution transformer, the other transformers start to feed back
through the network protector on the faulted circuit. This reverse power
causes the network protector to open and disconnect the faulty supply
circuit from the secondary bus. The network protector operates so fast
that there is minimal exposure of secondary equipment to the
associated voltage drop.
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 Secondary Network Distribution System

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 Secondary Network Distribution System

(b) The secondary network is the most reliable for large loads. A power
interruption can only occur when there is a simultaneous failure of all
primary feeders or when a fault occurs on the secondary bus. There are
no momentary interruptions as with transfer switches on primary
selective, secondary selective, or loop systems. Voltage dips which
could be caused by faults on the system, or large transient loads, are
materially reduced.
(c) Networks are expensive because of the extra cost of the network
protector and excess transformer capacity. In addition, each
transformer connected in parallel increases the available short-circuit
current and may increase the duty rating requirement of secondary
equipment.

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 Secondary Banking
• The term banking means to parallel, on the secondary side, a number of
transformers. All of the transformers are connected to the same primary
feeder.
• Banking is usually applied to the secondaries of single-phase transformers,
and the entire bank must be supplied from the same phase of the primary
circuit. All transformers in a bank are usually of the same size and should
have the same nominal impedance.
(a) The advantages of banking include: reduction in lamp flicker caused by
starting motors, less transformer capacity required because of greater load
diversity, and better average voltage along the secondary.
(b) Solid banking, where the secondary conductors are connected without
overcurrent protection, is usually not practiced because of the obvious risks.
Three methods of protecting banked transformers are shown in Figure. In each
arrangement the transformers are connected to the primary feeder through
high-voltage protective links or fuses.

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 Secondary Banking

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 Secondary Banking
• Each method has different degrees of protection, depending on the location
of the protective devices in the secondary. Figure (A) offers the least
protection due to the slow acting fuses normally used in this configuration.
• In the arrangement of Figure (B), the secondary circuit is sectionalized and
the faulted section can be isolated by the fuses.
• The third scheme, shown in Figure (C), utilizes special transformers
designed exclusively for banked secondary operation. These transformers,
known as completely self-protecting transformers for banking (CSPB),
contain in one integral unit the high-voltage protective link and the two
secondary breakers.
• When excessive current flows in one of the breakers, it will trip
independently of the other. Fault current protection and sectionalizing of
secondary banks are more efficiently accomplished by this method.

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 POWER DISTRIBUTION CABLE SYSTEMS.

• CABLE SPECIFICATIONS. A cable is defined as a single conductor or an assembly

of conductors covered by solid electrical insulation. Cable specifications generally
start with the conductor and progress radially through the insulation and coverings.
The following is a typical list of specifications:
(a) Number of conductors in cable.
(b) Conductor size (American Wire Gage (AWG), circular mil) and material.
(c) Insulation type.
(d) Voltage rating.
(e) Shielding system.
(f) Outer finishes (or sheath).
(g) Installation.
• An alternate method of specifying cable is to furnish the ampacity of the circuit
(amperes (A)), the voltage (phase to phase, phase to ground, grounded, or
ungrounded), and the frequency, along with any other pertinent system data.

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 CABLE CONSTRUCTION.
• A typical cable is comprised of conductors shielded by various types of
material. The cable may have one conductor or three conductors grouped
as one.
• Conductors. The two conductor materials in common use are copper and
aluminum. Copper has historically been used for conductors of insulated
cables primarily for its desirable electrical and mechanical properties. The
use of aluminum is based mainly on its favorable conductivity-to-weight ratio
(the highest of the electrical conductor materials), its ready availability, and
the stable low cost of the primary metal.
• Comparison Between Copper and Aluminum. Aluminum requires larger
conductor sizes to carry the same current as copper. The equivalent
aluminum cable, when compared to copper in terms of ampacity, will be
lighter in weight and larger in diameter. For distribution, aluminum is
commonly rated as equivalent to a copper conductor two AWG sizes
smaller, which has almost identical resistance.

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 Conductors
• Classes of Conductors. Conductors are classified as solid or stranded. A solid
conductor is a single conductor of solid circular section. A stranded conductor is
composed of a group of small conductors in common contact. A stranded conductor
is used where the solid conductor is too large and not flexible enough to be handled
readily. Large solid conductors are also easily damaged by bending. The need for
mechanical flexibility usually determines whether a solid or a stranded conductor is
used, and the degree of flexibility is a function of the total number of strands. The
strands in the stranded conductor are usually arranged in concentric layers about a
central core. The smallest number of wires in a stranded conductor is three. The next
number of strands are 7, 19, 37, 61, 91, 127, etc. Both copper and aluminum
conductors may be stranded.
• Conductor Sizes. Conductor sizes are ordinarily expressed by two different
numbering methods: the AWG formerly known as the Browne and Sharpe gage, and
the circular mil.
(a) The AWG or conductor sizes are numbered from 30 to 1, then continuing with 0,00,
000, and 0000 (or 1/0, 2/0, 3/0, and 4/0 respectively). Number 30 is the smallest size and
4/0 the largest in this system. As an example of the actual physical size of the conductors
commonly used in transmission and distribution work, the diameter of a number 8 AWG is
0.1285 inches and for a 4/0 AWG it is 0.460 inches.

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 Conductors
(b) The circular mil is the unit customarily used in designating the cross sectional area of
wires. A circular mil is defined as the area of a circle having a diameter of 1/1000 of an
inch.
• The circular mils of cross section in a wire are obtained by squaring the diameter
expressed as thousandths of an inch. For example, a wire with a diameter of 0.102
inches (102 thousandths of an inch) has a circular mils cross section of 102 X 102 =
10,404. Conductors larger than 4/0 AWG are designated in circular mils. These range
from 250,000 to 2,000,000 circular mils (250 MCM or 250 kcmil to 2,000 MCM or
2,000 kcmil).

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 Insulations
• Insulations. Insulations can be classified in broad categories as
solid, taped or special-purpose insulations. Basic insulating
materials are either organic or inorganic. The following is a list of
insulations commonly used:
(a) Thermosetting compounds (solid dielectric).
(b) Thermoplastic compounds (solid dielectric).
(c) Paper-laminated tapes.
(d) Varnished cloth-laminated tapes.
(e) Mineral inorganic insulation (solid dielectric granular).
• Insulations in general use for voltages above 2 kV are listed below.
Solid dielectrics of both plastic and thermosetting types are being
more and more commonly used, while the laminated-type
constructions, such as paper-lead cables are declining in popularity.

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 Insulations
(a) Thermosetting Compounds:
• Cross-Linked polyethylene (XLP or XLPE).
• Ethylene propylene rubber (EPR).
• Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR).
• Silicone rubber.
• Oil-base rubber.
• Chlorosulfonated polyethylene rubber (CPR).
• Butyl rubber.
(b) Thermoplastic Compounds:
• Polyethylene (natural).
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
(c) Paper-laminated Tapes.
(d) Varnished Cloth-laminated Tapes.

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 Shielding
• Shielding of Higher Voltage Cable. For operating voltages below 2 kV,
nonshielded constructions are normally used. Insulation shielding is
required for all nonmetallic, sheathed, single-conductor cables operating
above 2 kV and all metallic sheathed cables and multiconductor cables
above 5 kV.
• Procedure. Shielding is the practice of confining the electric field of the
cable to the insulation surrounding the conductor by means of conducting or
semiconducting layers, closely fitting or bonded to the inner and outer
surfaces of the insulation. In other words, the outer shield confines the
electric field to the space between conductor and shield. The inner or strand
stress relief layer is at or near the conductor potential. The outer or
insulation shield is designed to carry the charging currents and in many
cases fault currents.

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 Shielding
• Purpose. Insulation shields have several purposes:
(a) Confine the electric field within the cable.
(b) Equalize voltage stress within the insulation, minimizing surface discharges.
(c) Protect cable from induced potentials.
(d) Limit electromagnetic or electrostatic interference (radio, TV, etc.).
(e) Reduce shock hazard (when properly grounded).

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 CABLE RATINGS AND SELECTION
CRITERIA
• Cables come in various sizes. The size of a cable depends on the
ampacity or voltage rating of the cable. Cables may contain various
conductor sizes, and the electrical characteristics of the cable
depends on the conductor size used.
• Electrical and Environmental Specifications. The selection of power
cables involves the consideration of various electrical and
environmental conditions. These conditions include the quantity and
characteristics of the power being distributed and the degree of
exposure to adverse mechanical and thermal stresses. The
selection of conductor size is based on the following criteria:
• Voltage rating.
• Load current criteria (as related to loadings, thermal effects of the
load current, mutual heating, losses produced by magnetic
induction, and dielectric losses).
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 CABLE RATINGS AND SELECTION
CRITERIA
• Emergency overload criteria.
• Voltage drop limitations.
• Fault current criteria.
• Voltage Rating. The selection of the cable insulation (voltage) rating is
based on: the phase-to-phase voltage of the system in which the cable is to
be applied, the general system category (depending on whether the system
is grounded or ungrounded), and the time in which a ground fault on the
system is cleared by protective equipment. It is possible to operate cables
on ungrounded systems for long periods of time with one phase grounded
due to a fault. This results in line-to-line voltage stress across the insulation
of the two ungrounded conductors.
• Such cable, therefore, must have greater insulation thickness than a cable
used on a grounded system (where it is impossible to impose full line-to-line
potential on the other two unfaulted phases for an extended period of time).

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 CABLE RATINGS AND SELECTION
CRITERIA
• Consequently, 100 percent voltage rated cables are applicable to grounded
systems provided with protection which will clear ground faults within one
minute. 133 percent rated cables are required on ungrounded systems
where the clearing time of the 100 percent level category cannot be met,
and when there is adequate assurance that the faulted section will be
cleared within one hour. 173 percent voltage level insulation is used on
systems where the time required to de-energize a grounded section is
indefinite.
• Load Current Criteria. The manufacturer's ampacity recommendations should be
used as load current criteria. The following publications contain ampacity tables for
power cables.
(a) IEEE S-135-1-1962, Power Cable Ampacities, Copper Conductors.
(b) IEEE S-135-2-1962, Power Cable Ampacities, Aluminum Conductors.
• Ampacity tables indicate the minimum size conductor required, however, conservative
engineering practice, future load growth considerations, voltage drop, and short
circuit considerations may require the use of larger conductors.

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 CABLE RATINGS AND SELECTION
CRITERIA
• Skin and Proximity Effects. Careful consideration must be given when
grouping cables, as de-ratings resulting from mutual heating may limit
capacity. Paralleling two or more smaller size cables should be considered
over installation of conductors (larger than 500 MCM) because the current
carrying capacity, per circular mil of the conductor, decreases for alternating
current circuits (due to skin effect and proximity effect).
• The reduced ratio of surface to cross-sectional area of larger size
conductors is a factor in the reduced ability of the larger cable to dissipate
heat. Cables larger than 500 MCM are also more difficult to handle during
installation.
• When cables are used in multiple sets, consideration must be given to the
phase placement of the cable to minimize the effect of reduced ampacity
due to unbalanced distribution of current in the cables. Length of multiple
sets should be the same.

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 CABLE RATINGS AND SELECTION
CRITERIA
• Ambient Temperature. Cables must be de-rated when in proximity to other loaded
cables or heat sources, or when the ambient temperature exceeds the ambient
temperature at which the ampacity (current carrying capacity) tables are based. The
normal ambient temperature of a cable installation is the temperature of the
environment in which the cable is installed with no load being carried on the cable.
• Surrounding Medium. The thermal characteristics of the medium surrounding the
cables are of primary importance in determining the current carrying capacity of the
cables. The type of soil in which the cable or duct bank is buried has a major effect on
the current carrying capacity of the cables.
• Porous soils, such as gravel and cinder fill, usually result in higher temperatures and
lower ampacities than sandy or clay soil. The moisture content of the soil has a major
effect on the current carrying capacity of cables. In dry sections of the country, cables
may have to be de-rated, or other precautions taken, to compensate for the increase
in thermal resistance due to the lack of moisture.
• On the other hand, in ground which is continuously wet or under tidewater conditions,
cables may carry higher than normal currents.

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 CABLE RATINGS AND SELECTION
CRITERIA
• Emergency Overload Criteria. Normal loading limits of insulated wire and cable are determined
based on many years of practical experience. These limits account for a rate of insulation
deterioration that results in the most economical and useful life of such cable systems. The
anticipated rate of deterioration equates to a useful life of approximately 20 to 30 years. The life of
cable insulation may be halved, and the average thermal failure rate almost doubled for each 5 to
15C increase in normal daily load temperature.
• The normal daily load temperature is the average conductor temperature over a typical 24 hour
period. It reflects both the change in ambient temperature and the change in conductor
temperature due to daily load fluctuations. Additionally, sustained operation over and above
maximum rated operating temperatures or ampacities is not an effective or economical practice,
because the temperature rise is directly proportional to the conductor loss, which increases as the
square of the current.
• The intensified voltage drop may also increase the risks to equipment and service continuity.
Maximum emergency overload temperatures for various types of insulation have been established
and are available as a practical guide.
• Operation at these emergency overload temperatures should not exceed 100 hours per year, and
such 100 hour overload periods should not exceed five during the life of the cable.

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 CABLE RATINGS AND SELECTION
CRITERIA
• Voltage Drop Criteria. The supply conductor, if not of sufficient size, will
cause excessive voltage drop in the circuit, and the drop will be in direct
proportion to the circuit length. Proper starting and running of motors,
lighting equipment, and other loads having heavy inrush currents must be
considered. It is recommended that the steady state voltage drop in
distribution feeders be no more than four percent.
• Fault Current Criteria. Under short-circuit conditions the temperature of the
conductor rises rapidly then, due to the thermal characteristics of the
insulation, sheath, and surrounding materials, it cools off slowly after the
short-circuit condition is cleared. A transient temperature limit for each type
of insulation for short-circuit durations not in excess of 10 seconds has been
established, and many times this criterion is used to determine minimum
conductor size. Insulated Power Cable Engineers Association (IPCEA)
standards define the maximum conductor temperature limits allowable
under worst-case fault conditions.

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 TYPES OF CABLE INSTALLATIONS

• There are a variety of ways to install power distribution cables. Each method ensures
distribution of power with a unique degree of reliability, safety, economy, and quality
for any specific set of conditions. These conditions include the electrical
characteristics of the power system, the distance and terrain of distribution, and the
expected mechanical and environmental conditions.
Open-Wire: Open-wire construction consists of uninsulated conductors on insulators
which are mounted on poles or structures. The conductor may be bare or it may have a
thin covering for protection from corrosion or abrasion. The attractive features of this
method are its low initial cost and the fact that damage can be detected and repaired
quickly. On the other hand, the uninsulated conductors are a safety hazard and are also
highly susceptible to mechanical damage and electrical outages resulting from short
circuits caused by birds or animals. Proper vertical clearances over roadways, walkways,
and structures are critical. Exposed open-wire circuits are also more susceptible to the
effects of lightning than other circuits, however, these effects may be minimized by the
use of overhead ground wires and lightning arresters. In addition, there is an increased
hazard where crane or boom truck use may be involved. In some areas contamination on
insulators and conductor corrosion can result in high maintenance costs.

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 TYPES OF CABLE INSTALLATIONS
• Aerial Cable. Aerial cable consists of fully insulated conductors suspended above the
ground. This type of installation is used increasingly, generally for replacing open
wiring, where it provides greater safety and reliability and requires less space.
Properly protected cables are not a safety hazard and are not easily damaged by
casual contact. They do, however, have the same disadvantage as open-wire
construction, requiring proper vertical clearances over roadways, walkways, and
structures.
Supports. Aerial cables may be either self-supporting or messenger-supported. They
may be attached to pole lines or structures. Self-supporting aerial cables have high
tensile strength for this application. Cables may be messenger-supported either by
spirally wrapping a steel band around the cables and the messenger or by pulling the
cable through rings suspended from the messenger.
Distance. Self-supporting cable is suitable for only relatively short distances, with spans
in the range of 100-150 feet. Messenger-supported cable can span relatively large
distances, of over 1000 feet, depending on the weight of the cable and the tensile
strength of the messenger. For this reason, aerial cable that must span relatively large
distances usually consists of aluminum conductors to reduce the weight of the cable
assembly. The supporting messenger provides high strength to withstand climatic rigors
or mechanical shock. It may also serve as the grounding conductor of the power circuit.

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 TYPES OF CABLE INSTALLATIONS

• Above-Ground Conduits. @Rigid steel conduit systems afford the highest degree of
mechanical protection available in above-ground conduit systems. Unfortunately, this
is also a relatively high-cost system. For this reason their use is being superseded,
where possible, by other types of conduit and wiring systems. Where applicable, rigid
aluminum, intermediate-grade steel conduit, thin-wall EMT, intermediate-grade metal
conduit, plastic, fiber and asbestos-cement ducts are being used.
• Underground Ducts. Underground ducts are used where it is necessary to provide a
high degree of safety and mechanical protection, or where above-ground conductors
would be unattractive.
Construction. Underground ducts use rigid steel, plastic, fiber, and asbestos-cement
conduits encased in concrete, or precast multi-hole concrete with close fitting joints. Clay
tile is also used to some extent. Where the added mechanical protection of concrete is
not required, heavy wall versions of fiber and asbestos-cement and rigid steel and plastic
conduits are direct buried.
Cables. Cables used in underground conduits must be suitable for use in wet areas, and
protected against abrasion during installation.

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 TYPES OF CABLE INSTALLATIONS

• Direct Burial. Cables may be buried directly in the ground where

permitted by codes and only in areas that are rarely disturbed. The
cables used must be suitable for this purpose, that is, resistant to
moisture, crushing, soil contaminants, and insect and rodent
damage. While direct-buried cable cannot be readily added to or
maintained, the current carrying capacity is usually greater than that
of cables in ducts. Buried cable must have selected backfill. It must
be used only where the chance of disturbance is unlikely. The cable
must be suitably protected, however, if used where the chance of
disturbance is more likely to occur. Relatively recent advances in the
design and operating characteristics of cable fault location
equipment and subsequent repair methods and material have
diminished the maintenance problem.

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 TYPES OF CABLE INSTALLATIONS

• Underwater (Submarine) Cable. Submarine cable is used only when no other cable
system can be used. It supplies circuits that must cross expanses of water or
swampy terrain.
Construction. Submarine cable generally consists of a lead sheathed cable and is usually
armored. Insulation material should be XLP or EPR, except when paper insulation is
justified because of its high resistance to, and freedom from, internal discharge or
corona. Multiconductor construction should be used, unless limited by physical factors.
The lead sheathing usually consists of a copper-bearing lead material, however, other
alloys may be required when special conditions warrant nonstandard sheathing. The
most common type of armoring material used for submarine cables is the spirally
wrapped round galvanized steel wire. In this type of cable, asphalt impregnated jute is
usually applied over the lead sheath and the wire armor is applied over the jute to reduce
mechanical damage and electrolytic corrosion. An additional covering of the asphalt
impregnated jute may be applied over the wire armor. Nonmetallic sheathed cables are
sometimes suitable for certain submarine applications. The cable must be manufactured
specifically for submarine service and, generally, has an increased insulation thickness.
The cable may require wire armor and should have electrical shielding for all voltage
ratings above 600 V.

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 TYPES OF CABLE INSTALLATIONS

Installation. Submarine cable should lie on the floor of the body of water
and should have ample slack so that slight shifting caused by current or
turbulence will not place excessive strain on the cable. Where the cable
crossing is subject to flow or tidal currents, anchors are often used to
prevent excessive drifting or shifting of the cable. In addition to laying
cables directly on the bottom, burying cable in a trench using the
jetwater method should be considered. Cables must be buried in
waters where marine traffic is present. The depth of burial should be
enough to prevent damage caused by dragging anchors, which may be
in excess of 15 feet for large ships on sandy bottoms. Warning signs
located on shore at the ends of the submarine cable should be
provided to prohibit anchoring in the immediate vicinity of the cable.

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 TYPES OF CABLE INSTALLATIONS

• Grounding of Cable Systems. For safety and reliable operation, the shields and
metallic sheaths of power cables must be grounded. Without such grounding, shields
would operate at a potential considerably above ground. Thus, they would be
hazardous to touch, and would incur rapid degradation of the jacket or other material
intervening between shield and ground. This is caused by the capacitive charging
current of the cable insulation which is approximately 1 milliampere (mA) per foot of
conductor length. This current normally flows at a power frequency between the
conductor and the earth electrode of the cable, normally the shield. In addition, the
shield or metallic sheath provides the fault return path in the event of insulation
failure, permitting rapid operation of the protection devices.
• Grounding Conductor. The grounding conductor, and its attachment to the shield or
metallic sheath, normally at a termination or splice, should have an ampacity no lower
than that of the shield. In the case of a lead sheath, the grounding conductor must be
able to carry the available fault current over its duration without overheating.
Attachment to shield or sheath is frequently by means of solder, which has a low
melting point; thus an adequate area of attachment is required.

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 Grounding of Cable Systems
• Grounding Methods. The cable shield lengths may be grounded at both
ends or at only one end. If grounded at only one end, any possible fault
current must traverse the length from the fault to the grounded end,
imposing high current on the usually very thin shield conductor.
• Such a current could damage or destroy the shield, and require
replacement of the entire cable rather than only the faulted section. With
both ends grounded, the fault current would divide and flow to both ends,
reducing the duty on the shield, with consequently less chance of damage.
• There are modifications of both systems. In one, single-ended grounding
may be attained by insulating the shields at each splice or sectionalizing
point, and grounding only the source end of each section. This limits
possible shield damage to only the faulted section.
• Multiple grounding, rather than just double-ended grounding, is simply the
grounding of the cable shield or sheath at all access points, such as
manholes or pull boxes. This also limits possible shield damage to only the
faulted section.

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 Power System Applications
• A power system consists of transmission and distribution systems.
The transmission system is typically of higher voltage and is usually
referred to as a high side of the system. The distribution system is
called a low side of the system. The two systems are usually
connected by means of a transformer to transform the high voltage
to low voltage.
• Transmission System. Three-phase 3-conductor circuits are
universally used in transmission systems. Transmission circuits
consist of overhead or underground cables, or some combination of
both.
• Overhead Systems. Overhead circuits consist of aerial cables or
open-wire conductors carried on poles or towers. Aluminum
conductors have, to a large degree, replaced copper in overhead
installations. Conductor sizes most commonly used vary from No. 2
AWG to 556 kcmil aluminum cable steel reinforced (ACSR) or
stranded aluminum alloy. Three Phase Power
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 Power System Applications
• An aluminum cable stranded around a steel core sized to give the
required strength is known as ACSR. Other cables are aluminum
conductor alloy-reinforced (ACAR) and all aluminum-alloy conductor
(AAAC).
• Underground Systems. In older areas, transmission circuits are
often 3-conductor lead-covered cables. Cross-linked polyethylene
and ethylene-propylene rubber are replacing lead. Ordinarily, a 3-
conductor copper cable varying in size from 1/0 AWG to 500 kcmil is
installed in underground conduits. Aluminum cable is seldom used in
underground installations because these cables are larger than
copper cables of equal ampacity.

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 Primary Distribution System
• Primary Distribution System. A 3-phase 3-wire system is commonly used in primary
distribution.
Overhead Primaries. The conductor sizes most commonly used in overhead primaries
range from No. 4 AWG ACSR to 336.4 kcmil stranded aluminum. Laterals, or branches,
are often No. 4 or No. 2 AWG ACSR, but feeders run to the larger sizes.
Aluminum, ACSR, and alloys of aluminum have largely displaced copper from primary
circuit construction, although they may be specified on a copper-equivalent basis. Aerial
cable is often used for primary conductors where clearances are too close for open wire
or tree trimming is not practicable.
The cable in some cases comprises three rubber-insulated, neoprene-insulated, or
polyethylene-insulated conductors lashed to a bare messenger which serves as the
neutral for 3-phase circuits. I
n other cases, the phase conductors are supported from the messenger by insulating
spacers; this construction is commonly called spacer cable.
Single-phase taps, in either case, are usually one insulated conductor and messenger or
an insulated conductor with neutral strands spiralled around it.

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 Primary Distribution System
• Underground Systems. The conductor sizes most commonly used in
underground primary distribution vary from No. 6 AWG to 500 kcmil
copper. Feeders are usually 3- or 4-conductor cable, while laterals
may be single-conductor because of the requirement for numerous
transformer taps.
• On some systems, interconnected cable sheaths are used for the
neutral conductor; others use a separate bare neutral or fourth
conductor in the cable.
• Stranded aluminum conductors and aluminum sheaths have been
used in some cases, but the increased outside diameter usually
requires excessive duct space.
• Recent improvements in polyethylene insulation have extended the
use of aluminum-conductor cable for direct-buried systems where
overall size is not detrimental.
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