FUNDAMENTALS OF POWER

SYSTEM
 Complex Power
• If voltage and current are known, complex power can be
calculated. Suppose voltage and current through a load
or a circuit are given by
𝑉 = 𝑉 ∠𝛼 and 𝐼 = 𝐼 ∠𝛽

• Complex or apparent power is then:

𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 ∗ = 𝑉 ∠𝛼 × 𝐼 ∠ − 𝛽 = 𝑉 𝐼 ∠𝛼 − 𝛽
Convert from polar form
to rectangular form
𝑆 = 𝑉 𝐼 cos( 𝛼 − 𝛽) + 𝑗 𝑉 𝐼 sin( 𝛼 − 𝛽) Assume θ = 𝛼 − 𝛽 to be the angle
between phase voltage and phase
𝑆 = 𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 𝑉 𝐼 sin 𝜃 current
If 𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑍 and
𝑍 = 𝑍 cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 𝑍 sin 𝜃
= 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 𝑆 = 𝐼 2 |𝑍| cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 𝐼 2 |𝑍| sin 𝜃
S
𝑆 = 𝐼 2𝑅 + 𝑗 𝐼 2𝑋
Q

𝑆 = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 
P

Phasor diagram
2
 Example 1.1

Two ideal voltage source machines, labelled as 1 and 2 are connected

as shown in Fig. 2.2. If 𝐸1 = 100∠0° 𝑉. 𝐸2 = 100∠30° 𝑉 and 𝑍 = 0 + 𝑗5,

Determine :
(a) Which machine generate or absorb power and the amount
(b) Whether each machine receive or supply reactive power and what
is the amount
(c) Active and reactive power absorb by the impedance.

I Z

E1 E2
1 2

Figure 2.2

3
 Solution 1.1
Taking the specified direction of current flow to be +, then
𝐸1 − 𝐸2 100∠0° − 100∠30° ▪ Positive P indicates that
𝐼1−2 = = = 10.35∠ − 165° Machine 1 generates
𝑍 𝑗5
1000W of power.
• Machine 1 is a generator.
∗
𝑆1 = 𝐸1 ∗ −𝐼1−2 = 100∠0° ∗ −10.35∠165° = 1035∠ − 15° • Machine 1 supplies 268
= 1000 − 𝑗268
Var of reactive power.

∗
𝑆2 = 𝐸2 𝐼1−2 = 100∠30° 10.35∠165° = 1035∠ − 165°
= −1000 − 𝑗268 ▪ Negative P indicates that
Machine 2 absorbs
1000W of power.
▪ All the active power
Power absorb by the impedance: generated by Machine 1
0 is transferred to Machine
2.
𝑆 = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 + 𝑗 𝐼 2 𝑋 • Machine 2 is a motor.
Q = 10.352 × 5 = 536𝑉𝑎𝑟 • Machine 2 also supplies
268 Var of reactive power.
4
 Three-Phase System
▪ Power systems nowadays are designed for a three-phase systems.
▪ For distribution systems, equal domestic loads are specified for each phase of three-
phase low-voltage distribution feeders; while industrial loads usually take three-phase
supplies.
▪ Thus, normal operation is close to a balanced three-phase system thus can be
analyzed by representing them on per-phase basis with one phase and the
neutral.
▪ Advantages of 3 phase system :

1. STABILITY: Three phase system delivers 𝑃𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘

constant power at any instant of time - a 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔
single-phase power system delivers
pulsating power because it drops to zero
three times in a cycle but appliances in
domestic facilities need only small amount
of power and can handle the voltage
fluctuations.

2. COST: The volume of conductor required in

*please see detailed derivation in
a three-phase system is less than that Hadi Saadat’s reference book!
required in a single-phase, two-wire system
of equivalent KVA rating.
5
 Star/Y Connection
Ia One end of each a
coil is tied together
Ea – the point is
known a star or Vab
neutral point. Vac
N
Ec Eb
Ib
b
Ic
Vbc
c

Star connection of a 3-phase alternator

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 Current flowing in each phase is the
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝑐 = 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 same as the current flowing in each line
*In a practical 3-phase system, the given voltage is always
assumed as the line voltage, unless otherwise stated.
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 3 ∙ 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 *True for a balanced system only.
𝑉
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 ∙ 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒൘
∙𝐼
3 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
3 − 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 3 ∙ 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 3 ∙ 𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 ∙ 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 6
 Delta Connection
IL= Ia - Ic
a
Ia
Ec
Ea Vab
Vac
Ic
IL= Ib - Ia
b
Ib
Eb IL= Ic - Ib Vbc
c
Delta interconnection for 3-Phase alternator

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝑐 = 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 3 ∙ 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 ∙ 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑉𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 ∙ ൘
3 *Equation for power are
3 − 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 3 ∙ 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 3 ∙ 𝑉𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 ∙ 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 the same for star and
delta interconnection
7
 Example 1.2
A three-phase lines has an impedance of 2 2+j4  a
a
+ j4Ω each as shown in Figure at the side.
|VL| = 207.85 V
The lines feed two balanced three-phase b
60 
loads that are connected in parallel to the b
voltage source. The first load is Y-connected -j45 
and has an impedance of 30 + j40Ω per c
phase. The second load is ∆-connected and c
30 
has an impedance of 60 - j45Ω. The line is
energized at the sending end from a three- j40 
n
phase balanced voltage supply of 207.85 V.
Taking the phase voltage Van as reference,
determine:

a) Current, real power and reactive power

drawn from the supply.
b) The line voltage at the combined loads.
c) The current per phase in each load.
d) Complex power across each load and
line resistance.
8
 Solution 1.2(a)
The current, real power and reactive power drawn from the supply.
The ∆-connected load is transformed into an equivalent Y. The
impedance per phase of the equivalent Y is R α B γ α γ

R1 R3

The phase voltage is RA RC

R2

60 − 𝑗45 β β
𝑍2𝑎 = = 20 − 𝑗15Ω
3
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵
207.85 𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅1 =
𝑅3 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶
𝑉𝑎 = = 120𝑉
3 𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅2 =
𝑅2 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶
The single-phase equivalent circuit is: 𝑅𝐶 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅3 =
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶
𝑅1

I 2+j4 
a
+ I1 I2

30  20 
𝑉𝑎| =
|V 120∠0° 𝑉V𝐿𝑎
1 = 1200V 2

j40  -j15 
-
n 9
 Solution 1.2(a) cont.
The total impedance is
(30 + 𝑗40)(20 − 𝑗15)
𝑍𝑎 = 2 + 𝑗4 + = 2 + 𝑗4 + 22 − 𝑗4 = 24Ω
(30 + 𝑗40) + (20 − 𝑗15)

With the phase voltage as reference, the current I in phase a is

𝑉𝑎 120∠0∘
𝐼𝑎 = = = 5𝐴
𝑍𝑎 24

The three-phase power supplied is

𝑆 = 3𝑉𝑎 𝐼𝑎 ∗ = 3 120∠0∘ 5∠0∘ = 1800𝑊

10
 Solution 1.2(b)
The line voltage at the combined loads;
V2
The phase voltage at the load terminal is
𝑉2 = 120∠0∘ − 2 + 𝑗4 5∠0∘
= 110 − 𝑗20 = 111.8∠ − 10. 3∘ 𝑉

The line voltage at the load terminal is

𝑉2𝑎𝑏 = 3∠30∘ 𝑉2 = 3(111.8)∠19. 7∘ = 193.64∠19. 7∘ 𝑉

+ −𝑉𝑏𝑛

−
+
+

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑛 − 𝑉𝑏𝑛 11

 Solution 1.2(c)
The current per phase in each load;
The current per phase in the Y-connected load and in the equivalent Y
2+j4 
of the ∆ load is a
I
+ I1 I2
𝑉2 110 − 𝑗20
𝐼1 = = = 1 − 𝑗2 = 2.236∠ − 63. 4∘ 𝐴 1200V∠0°
𝑉𝑎| ==120 𝑉V𝐿𝑎 30  20 
𝑍1 30 + 𝑗40 |V 1 2

j40  -j15
𝑉2 110 − 𝑗20 -
𝐼2 = = = 4 + 𝑗2 = 4.472∠26.56∘ 𝐴 n
𝑍2 20 − 𝑗15

So, the phase current in the original ∆-connected load, i.e., is given by

𝐼2 4.472∠26.56∘
𝐼𝑎𝑏 = = = 2.582∠56.56∘ 𝐴
3∠ − 30∘ 3∠ − 30∘

12
 Solution 1.2(d)
The total real and reactive powers in each load and the line;
The three-phase power absorbed by each load is
𝑆1 = 3𝑉2 𝐼1∗ = 3 111.8∠ − 10. 3∘ 2.236∠63. 4∘ = 450𝑊 + 𝑗600var

𝑆2 = 3𝑉2 𝐼2∗ = 3 111.8∠ − 10. 3∘ 4.472∠ − 26.56∘ = 1200𝑊 − 𝑗900var

The three-phase power absorbed by the line is

2 2
𝑆𝐿 = 3 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 𝐼 = 3 2 + 𝑗4 5 = 150𝑊 + 𝑗300var

It is clear that the sum of load powers and line losses is equal to the
power delivered from the supply:

𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆𝐿 = 450 + 𝑗600 + 1200 − 𝑗900 + 150 + 𝑗300 = 1800𝑊 + 𝑗0var

13
 Per Unit System
• Electric power engineers often prefer to express impedances, currents, voltages,
and power in per unit (pu) values rather than their actual units as analysis of
power systems employing actual values do not adapt themselves easily to
computations.

• The per unit value of any quantity is the ratio of its actual value to the chosen
base quantity of the same dimensions.
Quantity in per-unit = Actual quantity
Base value of the quantity
• Four base quantities in power system are 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 , 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 , 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 and 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 . Specifying
any two base quantities determines the remaining two base quantities.

• Example, choosing 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 and 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 as base quantities, then

2
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = and 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = = 2
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒

14
 Advantages of PU System
In power system, per-unit is preferred because :
(1) It gives a clear idea of relative magnitudes of various electrical
quantities

(1) The per-unit impedance of equipment of the same general type based
on their own ratings fall in a narrow range regardless of the rating of
the equipment. Whereas their impedance in ohms vary greatly with the
rating.

(2) The per-unit values of impedance, voltage and current of a transformer

are the same regardless of whether they are referred to the primary or
secondary side - difference in voltage levels disappeared and the
entire system reduces to a system of simple impedance.

(3) The per-unit systems are ideal for the analysis and simulation of
complex power problems.

(4) The circuit laws are valid in per-unit systems, and the power and
voltage equations are simplified since factor of 3 and 3 are eliminated
in the per-unit system.
15
 Per Unit System
A minimum of four base quantities are required to completely define a per-unit
system: power, voltage, current and impedance.

Single Phase Three Phase

𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =𝑀𝑉𝐴1𝜑 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =𝑀𝑉𝐴3𝜑 In practical, these two
quantities are usually
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =𝑉𝐿𝑁 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =𝑉𝐿𝐿 specified as the base.

𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒−1𝜑 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒−3𝜑
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 =
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒−𝐿𝑁 3𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒−𝐿𝐿
(𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒−𝐿𝑁 )2 (𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒−𝐿𝐿 / 3)2 (𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒−𝐿𝐿 )2
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = =
𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒−1𝜑 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒−3𝜑 /3 𝑆𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒−3𝜑
𝒁𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝛀
𝒁𝒑𝒖 =
𝒁𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝛀

16
 Example 1.3
Calculation of per unit for 3 phase and the equivalent 1 phase system
Three Phase System Equivalent One Phase System
30,000
Base kVA3𝜑 = 30,000 kVA Base kVA1𝜑 = = 10,000 kVA
3
If the power is 18MW Hence power for single phase is 6MW
18,000 6,000
Per−unit power = = 0.6 Per − unit power = 0.6
30,000 10,000

120
Base kV𝐿𝐿 = 120 kV Base kVLN = = 69.2kV
3

If Line to Line Voltage is 108kV Voltage per phase is 62.3kV obtain from
108
3

108 62.3
P.u voltage = = 0.90𝑝. 𝑢 P.u voltage = = 0.90𝑝𝑢
120 69.2

Per-unit quantity is the same for single phase and 3-phase system!
17
 Change of Base
Impedance of generators and
transformers expressed in % or p.u
value based on their power ratings

Vg T1 T2 Vm
1 2
Line
M

Line impedance given in

its actual value in ohm.

✓ To ease analysis, all impedances must be expressed on per

unit on a common base – to do this, an arbitrary base for
apparent power must be selected (typically assumed to be 100
MVA). Then, voltage bases must be determined across the
system, starting from a single point in the system.
✓ The remaining voltage bases are no longer independent - they
are determined by the various transformer turns ratios.
18
 Change of Base
▪ If 𝑍𝑝𝑢
𝑜𝑙𝑑 is the per-unit impedance on the base power of 𝑆 𝑜𝑙𝑑 and
𝐵
Change Zold in terms of
base voltage of 𝑉𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑑 . Then, Sold and Vold because

𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑑 the values are known
𝑍𝑝𝑢 = 𝑜𝑙𝑑 = 𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑙𝑑 2 (given/assumed as a
𝑍𝐵 (𝑉𝐵 ) start).
𝒁 = 𝑽𝟐 /𝑺

𝑜𝑙𝑑 (𝑉𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑑 )2
▪ Re-arranging for 𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝑍𝑝𝑢 𝑜𝑙𝑑 (1)
𝑆𝐵

▪ Expressing 𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 to a new base power and voltage results in a

new per unit impedance;
𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝐵 Change Znew in terms
𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑍𝑝𝑢 = 𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑍𝐵
= 𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑒𝑤 2
(𝑉𝐵 ) of Snew and Vnew (2)
▪ Substitute 𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 in Eq. (1) into Eq. (2), yields;
𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑆
𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝐵
𝑉𝐵 2
𝑍𝑝𝑢 = 𝑍𝑝𝑢 ( 𝑛𝑒𝑤 )
𝑆𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑉𝐵
19
 Example 1.4

The reactance of a generator, X” is given as 0.25 pu based

on its nameplate rating of 18 kV, 500 MVA. Find the new
per unit X” using new bases of 20 kV and 100MVA.
2
100 18
𝑋′′ = 0.25 = 0.0405 pu
500 20

Or by changing the given per-unit into its actual ohms

quantity and divided using the new base,

0.25(182 /500)
𝑋′′ = = 0.0405 pu
202 /100

20
 Per Unit Reactance for Single Phase Transformer

• The leakage resistance and reactance (in ohm) for a

transformer depends whether it is referred to the
Primary or Secondary side. If these values are
stated in per-unit, the base power is the rating of the
transformer.

• The referred base voltage could be from the primary

or secondary side. However, the per-unit values for
transformer is the same regardless the base voltage
is taken from the primary or secondary side.

(Note: If the referred side is not stated, by default, the

impedance is always assumed to be referred to the lower
voltage)

21
 Tx Primary/Secondary Side
Note on the relationship between primary and secondary side:
𝑉1 𝑁1 𝐼1 𝑁2
= (1) = (2)
𝑉2 𝑁2 𝐼2 𝑁1
𝑉2
If the impedance is connected to the secondary side, 𝑍2 =
𝐼2 (3)

Substituting V2 (in Eq. 1) and I2 (in Eq. 2) into Eq. (3), yields
𝑉2 Rearranging Eq. (1)
2 2 2
(𝑁2 /𝑁1 )𝑉1 𝑁2 𝑉1 𝑁2 𝑉2
𝑍2 = = ∙ = ∙ 𝑍1 = ∙ 𝑍1
(𝑁1 /𝑁2 )𝐼1 𝑁1 𝐼1 𝑁1 𝑉1
𝐼2 𝑍1

2 2
𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑁1
Hence, the primary side impedance, 𝑍1 = = 𝑍2 = 𝑍2
𝐼1 𝑉2 𝑁2
Therefore, if impedance connected at the secondary side is
referred to the primary side, it must be multiplied by the turn
ratio of the primary side to the secondary side. 22
 Example 1.5
A single-phase transformer has a rating of 110/440 V, 2.5 kVA.
The leakage reactance measured from the low voltage side is
0.06Ω . Determine the leakage reactance in per-unit.

1102
Z base referred to low voltage side 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 4.84 Ω
2.5𝑘
0.06
Hence, the leakage reactance in pu, 𝑋𝑝𝑢 = = 0.0124 𝑝𝑢
4.84

If the leakage reactance is measured from the high voltage side,

440
the reactance 𝑋 = 0.06( )2 = 0.96Ω
110
4402
Z base referred to high voltage side, 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 77.5 Ω
2.5𝑘

0.96
Hence, the leakage reactance in pu, 𝑋𝑝𝑢 = = 0.0124 𝑝𝑢
77.5

23
 Example 1.6
Consider the following simple power system network:

Vg T1 T2 Vm
1 2
Line
M

The three-phase power ratings of the network are as follows:

G1 : 60 MVA 20kV X = 9%
T1: 50 MVA 20/200 kV X = 10%
T2: 50 MVA 200/20 kV X = 10%
M: 43.2 MVA 18kV X = 8%
Line: 200kV Z = 120 + j200 Ω

(a) Draw an impedance diagram showing all impedances in per unit on a 100-MVA
base. Choose 20 kV as the base voltage for the generator.
(b) The motor is drawing 45 MVA, 0.80 power factor lagging at the line-to-line
terminal voltage of 18 kV. Determine the terminal voltage and the internal emf of
the generator in per unit and in kV. 24
 Solution 1.6 (a)
The base voltage VBG1 on the LV side of T1 is 20 kV. Hence, the
base voltage on HV side of T1 is:
200 Multiply by the transformer
𝑉𝐵2 = 20 = 200𝑘𝑉 turn or voltage ratio
20
This fixes the base on the HV side of T2 at VB2 = 200 kV, then
voltage base on the LV side of T2 is: 20
𝑉𝐵3 = 200 = 20𝑘𝑉
200

The generator and transformer reactance in per unit on 100 MVA

base is: Following formula is used:
𝑛𝑒𝑤 2
𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝐵 𝑉𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝑍𝑝𝑢 = 𝑍𝑝𝑢 𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑆𝐵 𝑉𝐵

G: T2:
100 100
𝑋 = 0.09 = 0.15𝑝𝑢 𝑋 = 0.10 = 0.2𝑝𝑢
60 50
T1: M: 2
100 100 18
𝑋 = 0.10 = 0.2𝑝𝑢 𝑋 = 0.08 = 0.15𝑝𝑢
50 43.2 20

25
 Solution 1.6 (a) cont.

The base impedance for the transmission line is:

(200)2
𝑍𝐵𝐿 = = 400Ω
100

The per unit impedance is

Line: 𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 =
120 + 𝑗200
= 0.3 + 𝑗0.5𝑝𝑢
400

The per unit equivalent circuit is shown below:

j0.2 0.3+j0.5 j0.2

j0.15 Vm j0.15
Vg

Eg Em

26
 Solution 1.6 (b)
𝑉𝑔 j0.2 0.3+j0.5 j0.2
𝑉𝑚
45∠36.87° Power draw by
𝑆𝑚 = = 0.45∠36.87°𝑝𝑢 the motor in per unit
100 j0.15 Vm j0.15
Vg
18∠0°
𝑉𝑚 = = 0.90∠0°𝑝𝑢 Motor terminal voltage in per unit
Eg Em
20

0.45∠ − 36.87°
𝐼= = 0.5∠ − 36.87°𝑝𝑢 Current flowing in the system
0.9∠0°

𝐆𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞

𝑉𝑔 = 0.9∠0° + (0.3 + 𝑗0.9)(0.5∠ − 36.87°) = 1.31795∠11.82°𝑝𝑢 𝐮𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐊𝐕𝐋

𝑉𝑔 = 1.31795(20) = 26.359𝑘𝑉 Vg in its actual value.

𝐸𝑔 = 0.9∠0° + (0.3 + 𝑗1.05)(0.5∠ − 36.87°) = 1.375∠13.88°𝑝𝑢 𝐆𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐦𝐟

𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐮𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐊𝐕𝐋

𝐸𝑔 = 1.375(20) = 27.5𝑘𝑉

27
 Example 1.7
A simple power system consisting of one synchronous generator
and one synchronous motor connected by two transformers and
a transmission line is shown is shown below. Create per phase,
per unit circuit for this power system using a base apparent
power of 100 MVA and a base line voltage at generator G1=13.8
kV.
Region 1 Region 2 Region 3

G1 M2
T1 L1 T2

1 2
G1 ratings: T1 ratings: L1 impedance: T2 ratings: M2 ratings:
100 MVA 100 MVA R = 15 ohm 50 MVA 50 MVA
13.8 kV 13.8/110 kV X = 75 ohm 120/14.4 kV 13.8 kV
R = 0.1 pu R = 0.01 pu R = 0.01 pu R = 0.1 pu
Xs = 0.9 pu X = 0.05 pu X = 0.05 pu Xs = 1.1 pu

Figure 3

28
 Solution 1.7
To create a per-phase, per unit equivalent circuit, we must first
calculate the impedances of each component in the power
system in per-unit to the system base. The system base
apparent power is SB=100 MVA everywhere in the power
system. The base voltage in the three regions will vary as the
voltage ratios of the transformers that delineate the regions. The
base voltages are:

Region 1: Vbase,1 = 13.8 kV

110𝑘𝑉
Region 2: Vbase,2 = Vbase,1 13.8𝑘𝑉 = 110 kV

14.4𝑘𝑉
Region 3: Vbase,3 = Vbase,2 120𝑘𝑉
= 13.2 kV

29
 Solution 1.7
Solution:
The corresponding base impedances in each region are:
2
Region 1: Zbase,1 = 𝑉𝐿𝐿,𝑎𝑠𝑎𝑠
=
13.8𝑘𝑉 2
= 1.904Ω
𝑆3𝜑,𝑎𝑠𝑎𝑠 100𝑀𝑉𝐴
2
𝑉𝐿𝐿,𝑎𝑠𝑎𝑠 110𝑘𝑉 2
Region 2: Zbase,2 = = = 121Ω
𝑆3𝜑,𝑎𝑠𝑎𝑠 100𝑀𝑉𝐴
2
𝑉𝐿𝐿,𝑎𝑠𝑎𝑠 13.2𝑘𝑉 2
Region 3: Zbase,2 = 𝑆3𝜑,𝑎𝑠𝑎𝑠
=
100𝑀𝑉𝐴
= 1.743Ω

The per-unit impedance for each component:

G1: Unchanged R = 0.1 pu, Xs = 0.9 pu
T1 : Unchanged R = 0.01 pu, Xs = 0.05 pu
15Ω 75Ω
L 1: RL = 121Ω
= 0.124𝑝𝑢 , XL = 121Ω
= 0.62𝑝𝑢

30
 Solution 1.7
T2 : The impedance of T2 is specified in per-unit on a base of
14.4kV and 50 MVA in region 3. Therefore, the per-unit
resistances and reactance of this component on the new
system base is:
2
14.4𝑘𝑉 100𝑀𝑉𝐴
𝑅 = 0.01 = 0.238𝑝𝑢
13.2𝑘𝑉 50𝑀𝑉𝐴
0.01pu j0.05pu 0.124pu j0.62 pu 0.0238pu j0.119pu
2
14.4𝑘𝑉 100𝑀𝑉𝐴
𝑋 = 0.05 = 0.119𝑝𝑢
13.2𝑘𝑉 50𝑀𝑉𝐴
j0.9pu j2.405pu

M2: The per-unit initially is based on 0.1pu 0.219pu

13.8 kV and 50 MVA. Thus, the
G1 M2
new per-unit values:
2
13.8𝑘𝑉 100𝑀𝑉𝐴
𝑅 = 0.1 = 0.219𝑝𝑢
13.2𝑘𝑉 50𝑀𝑉𝐴 Per-phase, per-unit equivalent circuit
2
13.8𝑘𝑉 100𝑀𝑉𝐴
𝑋 = 1.1 = 2.405𝑝𝑢
13.2𝑘𝑉 50𝑀𝑉𝐴
31