RADIOLOGIC PHYSICS

Richard David Garcia Rebollado, RRT

 ENERGY
 Energy is the ability to do work.
 Energy can exist in several forms.
 In the International system (SI) energy is measured in
Joules.
 In Radiology the unit Electron Volt is often used.
FORMS OF ENERGY
 Potential Energy - Is the ability to do work by virtue of
position.
 PE= (mass x acceleration due to gravity x height) mgh
 Kinetic Energy – Is the energy of motion. It is
possessed by all matter in motion: A moving
automobile, a turning windmill, a falling guillotine blade.
This systems can all do work because of their motion.
 KE= ½ mv^2
FORMS OF ENERGY
 Chemical Energy – is the energy released by a chemical
reaction.
 Electrical Energy – represents work that can be done when
an electron moves through an electric potential difference
(voltage).
 Thermal Energy – is the energy of motion at the molecular
level.
 Nuclear Energy - is the energy that is contained within the
nucleus of an atom.
 Electromagnetic Energy – is the type of energy that is used
in x-ray imaging. In addition, to xrays, electromagnetic
energy includes radio waves; microwaves; and
ultraviolet light, infrared and visible light.
RADIATION
 Energy emitted and transferred through space
is called radiation.

“radiation is the transfer of energy”

TYPES OF RADIATION
 Ionizing Radiation – is a special type of radiation
that includes x-rays. Ionizing radiation is any type of
radiation that is capable of removing an orbital
electron from the atom with which it interacts. The
process is called ionization
 Non ionizing Radiation - a type of radiation that is
incapable of removing electron from a target atom
SOURCES OF IONIZING
RADIATION
 Natural Environmental Radiation – those that are
naturally existing. Consist of four components:
cosmic rays, terrestrial radiation, internally deposited
radionuclides and radon.
 Man-made Radiation
STANDARD UNITS OF
MEASUREMENT
THREE BASE QUANTITIES:
1. Length – the measurement or extent of something from end
to end. The unit used is meter (m)
2. Mass – is the quantity of matter contain by any object. The
SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg.)
3. Time – The standard unit of time is the second (s)
DERIVED QUANTITIES
(SECONDARY QTY.)
Work – measure of energy transfer that occurs when an object is
moved over a distance by an external force at least part of which
is applied in the direction of the displacement. The unit of work is
Joule.
(W= Fd)
Power – is the rate of doing work. The unit of power is (Watt.)
power = work/time (P = W/t)
Momentum – the product of the mass of an object and its
velocity. Represented by small letter p
p= mv
DERIVED QUANTITIES
(SECONDARY QTY.)
 Velocity – sometimes called speed, is a measure of how fast something is
moving or, more precisely, the rate of change of its position.
v = d/t
Where d represents the distance traveled in time t.
 Weight - is a force on a body caused by the pull of gravity on it.
Experiments have shown that objects that fall to earth accelerate at a
constant rate. This rate, termed the acceleration due to gravity and
represented by the symbol g, is 9.8 m/s^2 on Earth and 1.6 m/s^2 on the
moon.
- weight is the product of mass and the acceleration due to gravity.
(W = mg)
DERIVED QUANTITIES
(SECONDARY QTY.)
 Acceleration – the rate of change of velocity
with time is acceleration. It is how ” quickly or
slowly” the velocity is changing. Because the
velocity is divided by time, the unit is meters
per second squared (m/s^2).
a = v/t
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
1. Newton’s first law: Inertia – is the property of matter that
acts to resist a change in its state of motion.
2. Newton’s second law: Force – the force that acts on an object is
equal to the mass of the object multiplied by the acceleration. (F = ma)
3. Newton’s third law of motion: Action/reaction – it states
that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reation.
- according to this law, if you push on a heavy block, the block will push
back on you with the same force that you apply.
4 PHYSICAL FORCES IN THE
UNIVERSE
1 . Gravitational Force
 2. Electromagnetic force
 3. Strong Force
 4. Weak Force
SPECIAL QUANTITIES OF
RADIOLOGIC SCIENCE AND
THEIR UNITS
Radiographic Quantities Special Units International System
(SI) units

Exposure C/kg Air kerma (Gya)

Dose J/kg Gray (Gyt)

Effective Dose J/kg Sievert (Sv)

Radioactivity Becquerel (Bq)

MATTER
 Matter is anything that occupies space and has
mass. It is the material substance with mass of which
physical objects are composed.
 All matter is composed of fundamental building
blocks called atoms, which are arranged in various
complex ways.
ATOM
 Atoms came from the Greek word atomos meaning indivisible
 Smallest part of an element
 two parts of an atom
 1. nucleus – central core of an atom
- contains nearly all the mass of an atom
Contains nucleons

 2. orbits or shells – contain electrons

3 SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
 1. Proton
 2. Neutron
 3. Electron
THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER
Greek Atom
 The earliest recorded reference to this investigation
comes from the Greeks several hundred years BC.
 Scientist at that time thought that all matter was
composed of four substances: earth, water, air and
fire.
 The Greeks used the term atom, meaning
”indivisible” to describe the smallest part of the
four substances of matter.
DALTON ATOM (1808)
 John Dalton, an English school teacher, published
a book summarizing his experiments, which
showed that the elements could be classified
according to integral values of atomic mass.
 John Dalton was the first scientist who described
atom
 According to him, atom looks like a Hook and
Eye.
THOMSON ATOM (1890)
J.J Thompson concluded that electrons
were an integral part of all atoms.
He described atom as looking something
like a plum pudding.
RUTHERFORD ATOM (1911)
 Ernest Rutherford in 1911 disproved Thomson’s model of
the atom.
 Rutherford introduced the nuclear model, which
described the atom as containing a small, dense, positively
charged center surrounded by a negative cloud of electron.
nucleus.
 He called the center of the atom the

Geiger- marsden experiment became the

basis of this atomic model
BOHR ATOM (1913)
 Niels Bohr improved Rutherford’s description of
the atom.
 Bohr’s model was a miniature solar system
in which the electrons revolved about the
nucleus in prescribed orbits or energy levels.
PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
-BY WOLFGANG PAULI
 - determines the max # of e- per shell
 Formula: 2n^2
ELECTRON BINDING ENERGY
 Strength of attachment of an electron to its
shell
 Energy required to remove the electron from
its shell
 ionization potential – is the minimum
energy required to ionize an atom
NUCLEAR ARRANGEMENTS
 1. isotoPe
 Atoms that have the same # of Protons or
atomic #
 Same element, same atomic number, different
mass number
 Example:
 56 Ba 130 56 Ba 132 56 Ba 135
NUCLEAR ARRANGEMENTS
 2. isobAr
 Elements that have the same atomic mass
 Different elements that have the same number
of nucleons
 Example
 53 I 131 54 Xe 131 55 Cs 131
NUCLEAR ARRANGEMENTS
 isotoNe
 Different elements that have the same number
of neutrons
 Example
 53 I 129 54 Xe 130 55 Cs 131
NUCLEAR ARRANGEMENTS
 isomEr
 elements that have the same atomic mass and
the same atomic number but differs in
Energy levels
 Example
 43 Tc 99-m 43 Tc 99
RADIOACTIVITY
 The property of certain nuclides to
spontaneously emit radiation or particles in
order to become stable
 Discovered in 1896 by the French scientist
Antoine Henri Becquerel
RADIOACTIVITY
 Becquerel (Bq) – SI derived unit of radioactivity
 1 Bq – 1 dps ( disintegration per second)
 The traditional unit of radioactivity is Curie (Ci)
 Marie Curie - coined the term radioactivity
 - discovered polonium and radium
1 Ci – 3.7 x 10^ 10 Bq
1 Bq – 2.7 x 10 ^ -11 Ci
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
 The process where certain nuclides spontaneously emit energy or
particles to reach a stable state.

Parent nuclide Radioactive decay Daughter nuclide

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTIC
OF RADIOACTIVE ATOM
 Decay Disintegration / transformation Constant
- Fraction or percentage of original number of atoms decaying per unit time

 Half-life ( T ½)
- Time required for the activity of a sample to decay to one half of its
original value

 Activity / Radioactivity
- Time rate of decay of RAM
TYPES OF HALF-LIFE
 Biological – inside a living body
 Physical – time required for RAM to reduced to
1/2
 Effective - Tb x Tp/Tb+Tp
MODES OF DECAY
 1. Beta minus decay ( negatron emission )
 2. Beta plus decay ( positron emission)
 3. k-capture (electron capture)
 4. Alpha Decay ( Alpha emission)
 5. Gamma Decay ( Gamma Emission )
( isomeric transition )
ELECTROMAGNETIC
ENERGY/RADIATION
 Oscillating electric and magnetic fields that
travel with the velocity of light.
 It includes x-rays, gamma rays, and some non
ionzing radiation (such as ultraviolet, visible
light, infrared, microwaves and radiowaves.)
 Photon is the smallest quantity of any type of
electromagnetic energy.
 PROPERTIES OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY
 1. frequency – is the number of waves that pass a point of
observation per unit time. (cycle/s or Hz)
- rate of rise and fall
 2. wavelength – is the distance from one crest to another, or
from valley to another (m)
 3. amplitude – is one-half the range from crest to valley over
which the sine waves varies
 4. velocity – the velocity of electromagnetic radiation is
constant (3 x 10 ^8 m/s)
 Note: three wave parameters – velocity, frequency and
wavelength are needed to describe electromagnetic energy.
ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM
EMR Interaction Energy Frequency Wavelengt Velocity
level h

Xray atomic 1 1 6 C
Gamma Ray atomic 1 1 6 O
UV light molecular 2 2 5 N
V- light cellular 3 3 4 S
Infrared tissue 4 4 3 T
Microwave Cm in size 5 5 2 A
Radiowave Meter in size 6 6 1 NT
 THE WAVE EQUATION /
ELECTROMAGNETIC
EQUATION
 Velocity = frequency x wavelength
 The wave equation is used for both sound and
electromagnetic energy. However, keep in
mind that sound waves are very different from
electromagnetic photons.
PLANCK’S QUANTUM
THEORY
 X-rays are created with the speed of light ©, and they exist with velocity or
they do not exist at all.
 Max Planck was a German physicist whose mathematical and physical
theories synthesized our understanding of electromagnetic radiation into a
uniform model; for this work, he received the Nobel Prize in 1918.
 Another important consequence of this theory is the relationship between
energy and frequency: the photon energy is directly proportional to the
energy.
 E= hf
 Where E is the photon energy, h is Planck’s constant (4.15 x 10 ^-15), and
f is the photon frequency in Hertz
PLANCK’S EQUATION E= HF
 What is the frequency of 70 keV xray?
V=Fℷ , C=Fℷ
 1. The speed of sound in air is approximately
340 m/s. the highest treble tone that a person
can hear is about 20kHz. What is the
wavelength of this sound?
 2. yellow light has a wavelength of 580 nm.
What is the frequency of a photon of yellow
light?
INVERSE SQUARE LAW
 Law that states that the intensity of electromagnetic
radiation at a location is inversely proportional to the
square of its distance from the source of radiation.

 Question: the exposure from an x-ray tube

operated at 70 kVp, 200 mAs is 4 mGy at 90
cm. What will the exposure be at 180 cm?
ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM
AND ELECTROMAGNETISM
ELECTRICITY, ELECTRIC
CURRENT
 It is the flow of electrons
 UNITS OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
 Electrons – the smallest unit of electric charge
 1 e = 1.6 x 10 ^-19 Coulomb
 Coulomb is the SI unit of Electric Charge
 1 C = 6.3 x 10 ^18 electrons
ELECTROSTATIC LAW
 1. Unlike charges attract, like charges repel
 2. Coulomb’s Law
 3. Distribution
 4. Concentration
ELECTRIC STATE OF MATTER
 1. Conductors (copper, aluminum) – allows electron to flow, Obeys Ohm’s
Law
requires a voltage , variable resistance
 2. Insulators ( rubber, glass) – inhibits the flow of electrons. Extremely high
resistance
 3. Semi-conductors (silicon, germanium)
 4. Superconductors ( niobium, titanium)- no resistance to electron flow, no
electric potential require, must be very cold
 OHM’S LAW
 The voltage across the total circuit or any portion of the circuit
is equal to the current times the resistance.
 V = IR , I = V/R , R = V/I
 Where V is the electric potential in volts, I is the current in
amperes, and R is the electric resistance in ohms.
 Question: If a current of 0.5 A passes through a conductor
that has a resistance of 6 ohms, what is the voltage across the
conductor?
 VOLTAGE
 Aka. Potential difference, electric potential,
electromotive force
 Volts is the unit of voltage (Joules/Coulomb)
 V = IR
 Volts = ampere x ohm
 CURRENT
 The ratio of electric potential across the circuit
element to the resistance
 Measured in ampere (A)
 A = V/ Ω
 1 A = 1C/s
 RESISTANCE
 The ratio of electric potential across the circuit
element to the current.
 Measured in ohms ( Ω )
 Ω = V/A
 Note: the greater the resistance, the
higher the voltage it requires
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
 It results when the resistance is controlled and the conductor
is made into a closed path.
 function of electric circuit elements
CIRCUIT ELEMENT FUNCTION
RESISTOR Inhibits flow of electrons

BATTERY Provides electric potential

Capacitor Momentarily stores electric charge

Transformer Increases/decreases voltage by fixed amount

Diode Allows e to flow in only one direction

 SERIES CIRCUIT
All circuit elements are connected in
a line along the same conductor
 PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Contains elements that are
connected at their ends rather than
lie in a line along the conductor
Ohm’s Law Series Parallel

Voltage Plus Same

Current Same Plus

Resistance Plus Plus

TYPES OF ELECTRIC
CURRENT
 Direct Current ( DC )
 Electrons flowing in one direction along the
conductor
 Produced from sources such as batteries,
rectifiers etc.
TYPES OF ELECTRIC
CURRENT
 Alternating Current ( AC )
- current in which electrons oscillate back and forth
- also known as 60 Hz current
- comes from a source such as the power plant
X-ray tube only operates in direct current
Rectifier – a mechanical device that
converts alternating current to direct
current
Rectification – is the process of
converting alternating current to direct
current (AC – DC )
 ELECTRIC POWER
 The rate at which electric energy is transferred
by an electric circuit
 Measured in watts ( W )
 Watt = ampere x volt ( W = AV)
 P = IV, since based on Ohm’s Law I = V/R
 Therefore
P = I I R or P = I^2 R
 PROBLEM 1
 A pool heater running on 150 V draws a
current of 30 A. How much power does it
consume?
P = ?
 I = 30 A
 V = 150 V
 MAGNETISM
 The force where objects are attracted or
repelled to one another
 MAGNETITE
 A magnetic oxide of iron
 A rod – like stone that when suspended by a
string, it rotates back and forth
 The most magnetic of all the naturally
occurring minerals on Earth
 MAGNETIC DOMAIN
 Is an accumulation of many atomic magnets
with their dipoles aligned
 MAGNETIC MOMENT
 A nuclear magnetic dipole
 The proton in a hydrogen nucleus spins on its
axis and creates a nuclear magnetic dipole
called a magnetic moment
 This forms the basis of MRI
MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY
 The ability of a material to attract the lines of a
magnetic field density
 Refers to a material’s ability to absorb magnetic flux (
change)
 Magnetic Susceptibility
 - the degree to which the material can be magnetized
 - ability of a material to become magnetized by an
external magnetic field
CLASSIFICATION OF
MAGNETS
 1. Natural Magnet
 - natural magnets that occur in nature
 Best example is Earth
 2. Artificial Permanent Magnet
 - strong magnetic fields that do not fade
 Hard steel in the shape of a bar or horse shoe, capable of
attracting iron
 Best example is magnetic compass
CLASSIFICATION OF
MAGNETS
 3. Electromagnets
 - are temporary magnets produced by means of an electric
current
 A simple electromagnet consisting of a coil of insulated wire
wrapped around an iron core. The strength of magnetic field
generated is proportional to the amount of current.
FOUR MAGNETIC STATES OF
MATTER
 Non- magnetic
 - are unaffected by the magnetic field
 Examples
 Wood, glass
DIAMAGNETIC
 Weakly repelled from both poles of a magnetic field
 Examples
 Water, plastic
FERROMAGNETIC
 Have a large, positive susceptibility to an external
magnetic field
 Can be strongly magnetized
 Examples are iron and alnico
PARAMAGNETIC
 Weakly attracted to both poles of a magnetic field
 Example is Gadolinium
 Used as main component of contrast agent in MRI
MAGNETIC LAWS
 Dipole – states that dividing a magnet into smaller pieces will only create
smaller magnets with north and south poles.
 Attraction and Repulsion
 Induction – states that some materials can be made magnetic through
induction.
 The SI unit of the magnetic field strength is tesla ( T ), the old unit was
Gauss ( G )
 1 tesla = 10,000 gauss
 The earth’s magnetic field strength is approximately 50 uT at the equator,
in both poles 100 uT
HANS OERSTED
 Discovered that electric currents create
magnetic fields
 Any charged particle in motion induces a
magnetic field
 Discovered motor
MICHAEL FARADAY
 Credited with the discovery of induction in 1831
 Concluded that the magnetic field can’t be used to
generate electric current
 Made the first dynamo in 1837
 He discovered that when the magnet is moved, the
coiled wire does have current, as indicated by the
ameter
HEINRICH LENZ
 Lenz’s law – states that the direction of the
induced current opposes the action that
induces it.
ELECTRIC GENERATOR
 A practical application of the Faradays’ Law
 A device that converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy (GME)
 Can be called energy converter
ELECTRIC MOTOR
 Practical application of Oersted’s experiment
 They transform electrical energy into
mechanical energy (MEM)
COMMUTATOR RING
 Acts like a switch changing the polarity of the
contact of the look of the wire
 A rotary electrical switch in certain types of
electric motors or electrical generators that
periodically reverses the current
direction between the rotor and the external
circuit.
INDUCTION
SELF INDUCTION - Induction of the opposing
voltage in a single coil by its own changing magnetic
field.
MUTUAL INDUCTION – generation of an
alternating current in a primary coil
TRANSFORMERS
 Change the intensity of alternating voltage and
current by mutual induction
 Increase or decrease voltage and current
 Change the alternating current (AC ) from low voltage
to high voltage
 Does not convert any form of energy into another
 Main function is to change the magnitude of an
alternating voltage
TRANSFORMERS
 Consist of two coils
 a. Primary Coil – the coil to which the supply is
connected (Np)
 b. Secondary Coil – the coil from which the
output is taken (Ns)
TRANSFORMER LAW
 Vs/Vp = Ns/Np
 Is/Ip = Np/Ns
 Is/Ip = Vp/Vs
 Where Ns/Np is called the turns ratio.
 Note: if the turns ratio is greater than 1 the transformer is a
step- up transformer.
 If the turns ratio is less than 1 the transformer is a step-
down transformer
PROBLEM 1
 If a transformer is supplied with 400 volts to the
primary coil, has 100 turns of wire on the primary coil
and 20,000 turns of wire on the secondary coil, what
is the voltage on the secondary?
 Np= 100
 Ns = 20,000
 Vp = 4oo v
 Vs = ?
PROBLEM 2
 In this example we know the voltage in the primary,
3000 V, and the current in the primary coil 15 A. if the
secondary current is 20 A what is the voltage through
the secondary coil?
 Vp = 3000 V
 Vs = ?
 Is = 20 A
 Ip = 15 A
ELECTRICAL POWER LOSSES
IN TRANSFORMERS
 Transformers are not 100% efficient due power ( energy )
losses
 The electrical power losses are caused by 3 major factors:
 1. Copper loss (I^2 loss) – due to resistance
 2. Hysteresis loss – due to wear and tear
- the current loss in the core of a transformer due
to lagging AC magnetization.
 3. Eddy Current loss – due to opposing currents
CLASSIFICATIONS OF
TRANSFORMER
 Step up transformer
 Number of turns in secondary coil is > the number of turns in primary coil
 The output voltage is the higher that the input voltage.
 The turns ratio is greater than 1.

 Step – down Transformer

 Number of turns in the primary coil is > the number of turns in the
secondary coil.
 The output voltage is lower than the input voltage
 The turns ratio is < 1
CONSTRUCTION OF
TRANSFORMER
 1. Air core transformer
 It consist of simply of 2 insulated coils lying side by side
 2. open – core transformer
 An iron core inserted into a coil of wire carrying an electric current
 3. closed – core transformer
 A type of iron core that provide continuous path for the magnetic flux, so
that a small fraction of the magnetic energy is lost by leakage
 Built about a square of core of ferromagnetic
 4. Shell – type transformer
 Most advance type of transformer used as a commercial or power
transformer
 More efficient than the 3 transformers, as well as the most commonly used
transformer
CAPACITORS
Used to store charge temporarily
Acts like a battery as both store electrical
energy but it does not conduct electricity
THE X-RAY IMAGING SYSTEM
“ the function of the X-ray Imaging
System is to provide a controlled flow
of electrons intense enough to
produce an X-ray Beam appropriate
for imaging “.
COMPONENTS OF AN X-RAY
IMAGING SYSTEM
 1. X-ray Tube
 2. Operating Console
 3. High- Voltage Generator

X-ray Machines are usually operated

at
 Kilovoltage ranging from 30– 150 kVp
 Tube currents from 100 to 1, 200 mA
OPERATING CONSOLE
 Used to control:
1. The voltage applied to the xray tube
2. The current through the xray tube and
3. The exposure time

 Component of the system that is most familiar

to radiographers
HIGH VOLTAGE GENERATOR
 Line Compensator (from 220 – kilovolts)
Measures the voltage provided by x-ray unit and adjusts the voltage to
precisely 220 V.
 Autotransformer
 Has a single winding
 Designed to supply a precise voltage to the filament circuit and to the high-
voltage circuit of the x-ray imaging system
 It acts as kVp selector
KVP METER
 actually reads the Volt ( V ) not the kVp
 Some units have Pre-reading Voltmeter that
allows the voltage to be monitored before the
examination
CONTROL OF
MILLIAMPERAGE
 The number of electrons crossing from the
cathode to anode per second is measured in
milliampereres (mA).
 The quantity of electrons is determined by
filament temperature
 The filament normally operates at currents
between 3– 6 A.
FILAMENT TRANSFORMER
 Tube Current is controlled through a separate
circuit called the filament circuit
 Voltage then is delivered to the filament
transformer; the filament transformer lowers
the voltage so it is called a step down
transformer
EXPOSURE TIMERS
 Mechanical Timers
 A very simple device that operates by clockwork
 used for very old machine and dental units
SYNCHRONOUS TIMER
 A special type of electric motor and a precision device
designed to drive a shaft at precisely 60 revolution
per second rps
 X-ray imaging systems with synchronous timers are
recognizable because the minimum exposure time
possible is 1/60 s (17 ms) and timing intervals increase
by multiples thereof, such as, 1/30, 1/20 and so on.
 Synchronous timers cannot be used for serial
exposures because they must be reset after each
exposure.
ELECTRONIC TIMERS
 The most sophisticated, most
complicated, and most accurate of the X-
ray exposure timers
 Most exposure timers are electronic and
controlled by a microprocessor
MAS TIMER
 The mAs timer is usually designed to provide
the highest safe tube current for the shortest
time for any mAs selected.
 mAs timers are used on falling-load and
capacitor discharge imaging systems
 APR or anatomically programmed
radiography timers have computers that
store the technical factors in the machine
PHOTOTIMER/AEC
 Measures the quantity of radiation reaching the image
receptor and terminates the exposure when sufficient radiation
needed to produce the correct density on the film
 The type of AEC used by most manufacturers incorporates a
flat, parallel plate ionization chamber positioned between the
px and the image receptor
 This chamber is made radiolucent so that it will not interfere
with the radiographic image.
SPINNING TOP TEST
 Spinning Top is a simple mechanical device
that can be used to check the accuracy of x-
ray timer
 Flat metal disk with a small hole drilled near
one edge.
PROBLEM
 Determine the number of dots that should appear on
a manual spin top test imaged for a single phase full
wave unit with an exposure of 200 milliseconds, 200
mA and 95 kVp.
 The x-ray output from a half-wave high voltage
generator pulsates, producing 60 xray pulses/second.
 The xray output from a full wave high voltage
generator pulsates, producing 120 pulses/second.
SOLID STATE RADIATION
DETECTORS
Replaced the spinning top
Also called semiconductor Radiation
Detector
THREE PRIMARY PARTS OF
HIGH VOLTAGE GENERATOR
 All 3 components are immersed in oil to avoid
overheating.
 1. High Voltage Transformer – step up
 2. Filament Transformer – step down
 3. Rectifier – electronic device that allows the
current flow in only one direction.
VOLTAGE RIPPLE
 The amount of fluctuation in the voltage
 Variation in voltage supplied
 For x-ray machines, the less ripple the better
 Single phase – 100% voltage ripple
 3 phase 6 pulse – 14% voltage ripple
 3 phase 12 pulse – 4% voltage ripple
 High Frequency Generator – 1% voltage ripple
POWER RATING
 Rate at which the device converts electrical energy into another form of
energy

Formula for three-phase power :

Power rating = ma x kVp/1000
Formula for single-phase power :
Power rating = (0.7) x mA x kVp/100
EXTERNAL COMPONENTS OF
THE X-RAY TUBE
 1. support assembly
 2. protective housing
 3. window
 4. expansion gasket
 5. cable receptacles
 6. glass/ metal envelope
SUPPORT ASSEMBLY
 Ceiling support system
 Floor to ceiling support
 Wall-mounted
 C-arm support
PROTECTIVE HOUSING/TUBE
HOUSING/TUBE SHIELD
 Serves as protective device, preventing x-ray
form “leaking”
 Serves as a support for the xray tube and
protects it from rough handling
 Controls leakage radiation
 Provides a means to cool the tube
LEAKAGE RADIATION
 X-rays that escape fro the housing except at
the port hole or window
 Leakage radiation must not exceed 100
mR/hr at 1 meter
EXPANSION GASKET
 Also called expansion diaphragm / expansion bellow
 A rubber which expand when the oil becomes
hot and contracts when the oil becomes cool
PORT HOLE/ TUBE PORT /
WINDOW
 Thin part of the tube through which x-ray beams must
be emitted
 Insulating oil
 Modern x-ray tube housings are filled with mineral oil
 Serves as coolant
 Fills up the space between the metal housing and the
tube insert
CABLE RECEPTACLES
 2 projections from the side of housing
 Contain insulated sockets that connect xray
tube to high tension supply
GLASS OR METAL ENVELOPE
 Evacuated of air to allow extremely high voltage
 Protects the tube
 First part of the filtration system
 Provides an inherent filtration that is equivalent to 0.5 mm
aluminum thickness
 Modern x-ray tubes are encased in a PYREX glass envelope
 The window is a small area in the Pyrex glass usually made
thinner so x-ray can pass with minimum absorption
 In mammography, a special metallic beryllium window
prevents attenuation of lower energy photons
INTERNAL COMPONENTS OF
XRAY TUBE
1. cathode
2. anode
CATHODE ASSEMBLY
 Negatively charge
 It consist of two major parts
 Filament (large and small )
 Filament Cup or Focusing Cup
FILAMENT
Source of electrons
Small coils of thin thoriated tungsten
wire about 2mm in diameter by 1 to 2
cm. in length
1-2 % of thorium
FOCUSING CUP
 Encases the two filaments
 Serves to focus the space charge to a target
area
 Made of molybdenum (Mo) but nickel (Ni)
is also used
 Negatively charge
SPACE CHARGE
 Cloud of electrons accumulated during thermionic
emission
 Space charge effect
 - a phenomenon whereby most of the electrons
emitted by the cathode are driven back to it by the
repulsion of the cloud of electrons
THORIATED TUNGSTEN
 Metal of choice as it can withstand tremendous
amount of heat
 W has high melting point – 3410 degrees
Celsius
 Tungsten is added with approximately 1-2%
thorium
 It provides a good source of electrons, through
the process known as thermionic emission
THERMIONIC EMISSION
 Emission of electron from a heated surface
(filament)
 “therm” means heat ”ion” means
charged particle
ANODE ASSEMBLY
 Contains target and focal spot
 Consists of the Anode, stator, and rotor
 Where accelerated electrons move from
cathode.
 STATOR (STATIONARY
MOTOR)
 Either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet
outside the glass envelope
ROTOR (rotating motor)
 Rotates due to induction
 Inside glass envelope
 Made of copper bars and soft iron around a
molybdenum shaft
PURPOSE OF ANODE
 Site for energy conversion
 Serves as a target for the high- voltage electrons
 Conducts high-voltage from cathode back into the x-
ray generator circuit
 Primary thermal conductor
TYPES OF ANODE
 Stationary anode
 Designed like the rotating anodes but without
the rotation capacity
 Usually found in dental units and some mobile
radiographic unit
 Reduce output
 Made of tungsten embedded in a copper bar
ROTATING ANODE
 Turns during exposure
 Consist of molybdenum disk rotated by an
induction motor
 Consist of three main parts
 1. rotating target
 2. anode stem
 3. rotor
ROTATING ANODE
 Anode Stem
 Attaches the rotating target area to the rotor
 Also usually made of copper

 Rotating target
 The target for receiving electrons
 Made of tungsten added with 5-10% rhenium to withstand heat
 Can be made of molybdenum when used for soft tissue imaging like
mammography
 The angle of rotating anode is about 8-20 degrees
ROTATING ANODE
 Angle of rotating anode is about 8-20 degrees
 Most rotating anode turns approximately 3400
revolution per minute (RPM), with higher speed of
turning @ 10,000 RPM
 During exposure, space charge electrons strike the
target at a specific area called focal spot
 Focal spot is the actual area in the target struck by
the electrons and converts electrical energy to EMR
(x-rays)
TUNGSTEN
 Material of choice for target because
 High atomic number
 High melting point
 Heat- conducting ability – the ability to conduct heat
helps cool the anode and prevent melting.
 Cost- effective – other materials can also be used but
tungsten is cheaper
 Readily available (mas mura)
FOCAL TRACK/FOCAL SPOT
 Where high speed electrons will be bombarded
 Actual focal spot
 Physical area bombarded by electrons
 Effective focal spot
 Projected out of the tube toward the px.
LINE FOCUS PRINCIPLE
 Aka Goetze Principle
 Reduce the effective are of the focal spot
 Results in smaller effective focal spot size
 12 degrees target angle most common
because it is the minimum that will cover
a 14x17 at 40 SID
ANODE HEEL EFFECT
 Unfortunate concequene of the line-focus principle
 Radiation intensity on the cathode side of the x-ray
tube is higher than the anode side.
 Most noticeable with:
 Small focal spot
 Short SID
 Large field
FOCAL SPOT SIZE AND
THEIR USES
 0.3 mm – magnification radiography
 0.5 – 1.00 mm – bony parts
 1.00 – 2.00 mm – all radiographic examinations but
requires large exposure dose and short exposure time
CAUSES OF X-RAY TUBE
FAILURE
 1. Single Excessive exposure
 2. Long Exposure Times
 3. Tungsten Vaporization
SINGLE EXCESSIVE
EXPOSURE
 Causes pitting and cracking of the anode
 Maximum technical factors should never be
applied in a cold anode
 Follow the recommended warm-up procedure:
 3 exposure times, 3 seconds apart, @200 mA,
1 second and 80 kVP
LONG EXPOSURE TIMES
 Causes excessive heating of the anode
components
 Results in damage to the bearings
TUNGSTEN VAPORIZATION
The most common cause of tube
failure
TUBE RATING CHARTS
 1. Radiographic Tube Rating Charts ( most important )
 2. Anode Cooling Chart
 3. Housing Cooling Chart
CALCULATING HEAT UNITS
(HU)
 HU = kVp x mA x Time x rectification constant
 The heat unit rectification constant ( c ) are:
 1. Single Phase - 1.00
 2. 3 Phase 6 Pulse – 1.35
 3. 3 Phase 12 Pulse – 1.41
 4. High Frequency - 1.45
PROBLEM:
 For a high frequency unit, calculate the heat unit for a lateral skull
examination operated 16 mAs, 79 kVp.
X-RAY INTERACTION WITH
MATTER
 1. Coherent Scattering
 2. Compton Scattering
 3. Photoelectric Effect
 4. Pair Production
 5. Photodisintegration