UNIT III

Definition

 The words 'sensor' and 'transducer' are

both widely used in the description of
measurement systems.
 The former is popular in the USA
whereas the latter has been used in Europe
for many years. The word 'sensor' is derived
from entire meaning 'to perceive' and
'transducer' is from transducer meaning 'to
lead across'.
 Definition

 A dictionary definition of 'sensor' is

`a device that detects a change in a physical
stimulus and turns it into a signal which can
be measured or recorded;
 The corresponding definition of
'transducer' is 'a device that transfers energy
from one system to another in the same or in
the different form'.
 Transducers
• Transducer
– a device that converts a primary form of energy into a
corresponding signal with a different energy form
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic,
optical, chemical, etc.
– take form of a sensor or an actuator
• Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
– a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
– acquires information from the “real world”
• Actuator (e.g., heater)
– a device that generates a signal or stimulus

sensor intelligent
real
feedback
world
actuator system
 Sensor Systems
Typically interested in electronic sensor
– convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal
• General Electronic Sensor
– primary transducer: changes “real world” parameter into
electrical signal
– secondary transducer: converts electrical signal into analog or
digital values
real primary analo secondary usable
world transducer g transducer values
signal
sensor
• Typical Electronic Sensor System
input
signal sensor data microcontroller network
(measurand)
sensor signal processing display
analog/digital
communication
 Introduction

 Sensors and transducers are classified

according to;
 the physical property that they use
(piezoelectric, photovoltaic, etc.)
 the function that they perform
(measurement of length, temperature, etc.).
 Since energy conversion is an essential
characteristic of the sensing process, the various
forms of energy should be considered.
 Introduction

 There are 3 basic types of transducers namely

self-generating, modulating, and modifying
transducers.

The self-generating type (thermocouples,

piezoelectric, photovoltaic) does not require the
application of external energy.
 Introduction

 Modulating transducers (photoconductive

cells, thermistors, resistive displacement devices) do
require a source of energy.
For example, a thermocouple is self-generating,
producing a change in resistance in response to a
temperature difference, whereas a photoconductive
cell is modulating because it requires energy.
 The modifying transducer (elastic beams,
diaphragms) is characterized by the same form of
energy at the input and output. The energy form on
both sides of a modifier is electrical.
 Features of Sensors

The desirable features of sensors are:

1. accuracy - closeness to "true" value of variable;

accuracy = actual value - sensed value;
2. precision - little or no random variability in
measured variable
3. operating range - wide operating range; accurate
and precise over entire sensing range
4. calibration - easy to calibrate; no "drift" - tendency
for sensor to lose accuracy over time.
5. reliability - no failures
6. cost and ease of operation - purchase price,
cost of installation and operation
 Common Sensors
Listed below are some examples of common
transducers and sensors that we may encounter:

 Ammeter - meter to indicate electrical current.

 Potentiometer - instrument used to measure
voltage.
 Strain Gage - used to indicate torque, force,
pressure, and other variables. Output is change in
resistance due to strain, which can be converted into
voltage.
 Thermistor - Also called a resistance thermometer;
an instrument used to measure temperature. The
operation is based on change in resistance as a
function of temperature.
 Sensors Types

• There are several transducers that will be

examined further in terms of their
principles of operations.
• Those include :

1. Resistive Position Transducers

2. Strain Gauges
3. Capacitive Transducers
4. Inductive Transducers
5. And a lot more…
 Example Electronic Sensor Systems
• Components vary with application
– digital sensor within an instrument
• microcontroller sensor µC keypad
– signal timing signal timing
sensor memory display
– data storage handheld instrument

– analog sensor analyzed by a PC

sensor interface e.g., RS232
PC
sensor A/D, communication
signal processing comm. card

– multiple sensors displayed over internet

internet

sensor sensor
sensor bus sensor bus
processor PC processor
comm. comm.
comm. card
 Primary Transducers
• Conventional Transducers
large, but generally reliable, based on older technology
– thermocouple: temperature difference
– compass (magnetic): direction
• Microelectronic Sensors
millimeter sized, highly sensitive, less robust
– photodiode/phototransistor: photon energy (light)
• infrared detectors, proximity/intrusion alarms
– piezoresisitve pressure sensor: air/fluid pressure
– microaccelerometers: vibration, ∆-velocity (car crash)
– chemical senors: O2, CO2, Cl, Nitrates (explosives)
– DNA arrays: match DNA sequences
 Example Primary Transducers
• Light Sensor
– photoconductor
• light  R

– photodiode
• light  I

– membrane pressure sensor

• resistive (pressure   R)
• capacitive (pressure  C)
 Displacement Measurements
• Measurements of size, shape, and position utilize
displacement sensors
• Examples
– diameter of part under stress (direct)
– movement of a microphone diaphragm to quantify liquid
movement through the heart (indirect)

• Primary Transducer Types

– Resistive Sensors (Potentiometers & Strain Gages)
– Inductive Sensors
– Capacitive Sensors
– Piezoelectric Sensors

• Secondary Transducers
– Wheatstone Bridge
– Amplifiers
 Strain Gage: Gage Factor
• Remember: for a strained thin wire
– R/R = L/L – A/A + r/r
• A = p (D/2)2, for circular wire
D L

• Poisson’s ratio, m: relates change in diameter D to

change in length L
– D/D = - m L/L
• Thus
– R/R = (1+2m) L/L + r/r
dimensional effect piezoresistive effect

• Gage Factor, G, used to compare strain-gate materials

– G = R/R = (1+2m) + r/r

L/L L/L
 Temperature Transducers
• The temperature transducers can be divided
into four main categories:

o Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

o Thermocouples
o Thermistors
o Ultrasonic transducers
 Temperature Sensor Options
• Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
– Platinum, Nickel, Copper metals are typically used
– positive temperature coefficients
• Thermistors (“thermally sensitive resistor”)
– formed from semiconductor materials, not metals
• often composite of a ceramic and a metallic oxide (Mn, Co, Cu or Fe)
– typically have negative temperature coefficients
• Thermocouples
– based on the Seebeck effect: dissimilar metals at diff. temps.  signal
 Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs)
• Detectors of resistance temperatures
commonly employ platinum, nickel, or
resistance wire elements, whose resistance
variation with temperature has a high intrinsic
accuracy.

• They available in many configurations and

sizes and as shielded and open units for both
immersion and surface applications.
 Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs)
• Some examples of RTDs are as follows:
 Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs)
• The relationship between temperature and
resistance of conductors can be calculated from

R  Ro (1  T )
this equation:

where;
R= resistance of the conductor at temp t (oC)
Ro=resistance at the reference temp.
= temperature coefficient of resistance
= difference between operating and reference
temp.
 Thermocouples
• A thermocouple is a sensor for measuring
temperature. It consists of two dissimilar / different
metals, joined together at one end, which produce a
small unique voltage at a given temperature. This
voltage is measured and interpreted by the
thermocouple.

•The magnitude of this voltage depends on the

materials used for the wires and the amount of
temperatures difference between the joined end and
the other ends.
 Thermocouples
• Some examples of the thermocouples are as
follows:
 Thermocouples
• Common commercially available
thermocouples are specified by ISA
(Instrument Society of America) types.

• Type E, J, K, and T are base-metal

thermocouples and can be used up to about
1000°C (1832°F).

• Type S, R, and B are noble-metal

thermocouples and can be used up to about
2000°C (3632°F).
 Thermocouples
• The following table provides a summary of basic
thermocouple properties.
 Thermocouples
•Calibration curves for several commercially
available thermocouples is as below:
 Thermocouples
• The magnitude of thermal emf depends on the
wire materials used and on the temperature difference
between the junctions.
• The effective emf of the thermocouple is given as:
E  c(T1  T2 )  k (T  T ) 1
2
2
2

•Where;
c and k – constant of the thermocouple materials
T1 - temperature of the ‘hot’ junction.
T2 - temperature of the ‘cold’ or
‘reference’ junction.
 Passive Sensor Readout Circuit
• Photodiode Circuits

• Thermistor Half-Bridge
– voltage divider
– one element varies

• Wheatstone Bridge
– R3 = resistive sensor
– R4 is matched to nominal value of R3
– If R1 = R2, Vout-nominal = 0 VCC
– Vout varies as R3 changes
R1+R4
 Operational Amplifiers
• Properties
– open-loop gain: ideally infinite: practical values 20k-200k
• high open-loop gain  virtual short between + and - inputs
– input impedance: ideally infinite: CMOS opamps are close to ideal
– output impedance: ideally zero: practical values 20-100
– zero output offset: ideally zero: practical value <1mV
– gain-bandwidth product (GB): practical values ~MHz
• frequency where open-loop gain drops to 1 V/V
• Commercial opamps provide many different properties
– low noise
– low input current
– low power
– high bandwidth
– low/high supply voltage
– special purpose: comparator, instrumentation amplifier
 Basic Opamp Configuration
• Voltage Comparator
– digitize input

• Voltage Follower
– buffer

• Non-Inverting Amp • Inverting Amp

 More Opamp Configurations
• Summing Amp

• Differential Amp

• Integrating Amp

• Differentiating Amp
 Converting Configuration
• Current-to-Voltage

• Voltage-to-Current
 Instrumentation Amplifier
• Robust differential
gain amplifier gain stage

• Input stage
– high input impedance input stage
• buffers gain stage
– no common mode gain
– can have differential gain

• Gain stage
– differential gain, low input impedance total differential gain
2R2  R1  R4 
• Overall amplifier Gd   
– amplifies only the differential component
R1  R3 
• high common mode rejection ratio
– high input impedance suitable for biopotential electrodes with high
output impedance
Instrumentation Amplifier w/ BP Filter

instrumentation amplifier HPF non-inverting amp

With 776 op amps, the circuit was found to have a CMRR of 86 dB at 100 Hz and a noise level of 40 mV peak to
peak at the output. The frequency response was 0.04 to 150 Hz for ±3 dB and was flat over 4 to 40 Hz. The total
gain is 25 (instrument amp) x 32 (non-inverting amp) = 800.
 Resistive Position Transducers

• The principle of the resistive position transducer

is that the measured quantity causes a resistance
change in the sensing element.
• A common requirement in industrial
measurement and control work is to be able to sense
the position of an object, or the distance it has
moved.
• One type of displacement transducer uses a
resistance element with a sliding contact linked to the
object being monitored.
• Thus the resistance between the slider and one
end of the resistance element depends on the
position of the object.
 Resistive Position Transducers

• The output voltage depends on the wiper position and

therefore is a function of the shaft position.
• In figure below, the output voltage Eout is a fraction
of ET, depending on the position of the wiper.
• The element is considered perfectly linear if
the resistance of the transducer is distributed
uniformly along the length of travel of wiper.

Eout R2

ET R1  R2
 Resistive Position Transducers

Example 1
An RPT with a shaft stroke of 5.5 inches is applied in
the circuit as below. The total resistance of the
potentiometer is 4.7kΩ. The applied voltage is
ET= 3V.
When the wiper is 0.9 in. from B, what is Eout?
 Strain Gauges

• The Strain Gauge is an example of a passive

transducer that uses electrical resistance
variation in wires to sense the strain produced by
a force on the wire.
• It is a very versatile detector and transducer for
measuring weight, pressure, mechanical force or
displacement.
 Strain Gauges

The construction of a bonded strain gauge shows a

fine wire looped back and forth on a mounting plate,
which is usually cemented to the element that
undergoing stress.
 Strain Gauges

• For many common materials, there is a constant

ratio between stress and strain.
• Stress is defined as the internal force per unit
area.
F
S
•
S – Stress (kg/m2)
F – Force (kg)
A A - Area (m2)

• The constant of proportionality between stress

and strain for the curve is known as the modulus of
elasticity of the materials, E or Young’s Modulus.
 Capacitive Transducers
• The capacitance of a parallel plate is given
by:
kA
C o k= dielectric constant
A= area of the plate
o=8.854x10-12 F/m
d d= plate spacing

• Since the capacitance in inversely

proportional to the spacing of the parallel
plates, any variations in d will cause a
variation in capacitance.
 Capacitive Transducers
• Some examples of capacitive transducers
 Inductive Transducers
• Inductive Transducers may be either the self-
generating or the passive type transducers.

• In the Self-Generating IT, it utilises the basic

electrical generator principle that when there is
relative motion between conductor and magnetic
field, a voltage is induced in the conductor.

• An example of this is Tachometer that directly

converts speeds or velocity into an electrical
signal.
 Tachometers
• Examples of a Common Tachometer
 Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• Passive inductive transducers require an external
source of power.
• The Differential transformer is a passive inductive
transformer, well known as Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT).
• It consists basically of a primary winding and two
secondly windings, wound over a hollow tube and
positioned so that the primary is between two of
its secondaries.
 Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• Some examples of LVDTs.
 Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• An example of LVDT electrical wiring.
 Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• An iron core slides within the tube and therefore
affects the magnetic coupling between the primary
and two secondaries.
• When the core is in the centre , the voltage
induced in the two secondaries is equal.
• When the core is moved in one direction of centre,
the voltage induced in one winding is increased and
that in the other is decreased. Movement in the
opposite direction reverse this effects.
 Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
•In next figure, the winding
is connected ‘series opposing’
-that is the polarities of V1
and V2 oppose each other
as we trace through the circuit
from terminal A to B.
•Consequently, when the core
is in the center so that V1=V2,
there is no voltage output,
Vo = 0V.
 Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• When the core is away from S1, V1 is greater than
V2 and the output voltage will have the polarity of V1.
• When the core is away from S2, V2 is greater than
V1 and the output voltage will have the polarity of V2.
• That is the output of ac voltage inverts as the core
passes the center position.
• The farther the core moves from the centre, the
greater the difference in value between V1 and V2,
and consequently the greater the value of Vo.
 Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• Thus, the amplitude of Vo is a function of distance
the core has moved. If the core is attached to a
moving object, the LVDT output voltage can be a
measure of the position of the object.
• The farther the core moves from the centre, the
greater the difference in value between V1 and V2,
and consequently the greater the value of Vo.
 Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT)
Among the advantages of LVDT are as follows:

• It produces a higher output voltages for small

changes in core position.
• Low cost
• Solid and robust -capable of working in a wide
variety of environments.
• No permanent damage to the LVDT if
measurements exceed the designed range.
 Piezoelectric Transducers
• When a mechanical pressure is applied to a
crystal of a Rochelle salt, quartz, or tourmaline type, a
displacement of the crystals that will produce a
potential difference will occur.

• This property is used in piezo-

electric transducers; where a
crystal is placed between a solid
base and force-summing element,
as shown below:
 Piezoelectric Transducers
• When externally force is applied to the plates, a
stress will be produced in the upper part of the crystal.

• This deformation will produce a potential

difference at the surface of the crystal. This produces
an electromotive force across the crystal proportional
to the magnitude of the applied pressure. This effect is
called piezoelectric effects.
•
• The induced charge on the crystal is proportional
to the impressed force and given by:
Q = dF; where d = piezoelectric constant.