Construction Techniques,

Equipment and Practice

UNIT – II

CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
SYNOPSIS

 Specification  Precast Pavements

 Sequence of activities  Slip Forms

 Site clearance, Marking  Scaffoldings

 Damp Proof Course, Weathering  Fabrication & Erection of Steel
Course Trusses
 Masonry
 Air Conditioning
 Flooring
 Acoustics
 Roofing
 Fire Protection
 Construction Joints
 Centering & Shuttering
 Foundation
Specification

 Specifications are statements which describe the nature and class of

work, materials to be used, labour to be employed, method of work,

precautions to be taken, quality of workmanship etc.,
 Contract specification

 General specification

 Detailed specification

• Guide specification

• Manufacturer’s specification
Sequence of Activities to be done in Construction
 Excavation  Plastering

 Concrete in Foundation  Pointing

 Soiling  Doors

 Damp Proof Course(DPC)  Windows

 Masonry Work  Wood Work

 Lintel  Iron Work

 Reinforced Cement Concrete  White Washing

 Flooring  Colour Washing

 Roofing  Painting
Masonry

 It is used to indicate the art of building the structures either in stones

or bricks.
 Masonry classification

 Stone masonry

 Brick masonry

 Hollow block concrete masonry

 Reinforced masonry

 Composite masonry
Stone Masonry
Based on the arrangement of the stones in the construction and degree of
refinement in the surface finish.

 Rubble Masonry  Ashlar masonry

 Coursed rubble  Ashlar fine
 Uncoursed Rubble  Ashlar Rough – tooled
 Dry Rubble  Ashlar Rock or quarry face
 Polygonal Rubble  Ashlar Chamfered
 Flint Rubble  Ashlar Block – in - course
Brick Masonry
Brick masonry is unified mass obtained by systematic arrangement of
laying bricks and bonding them together with mortar.
 Raking bond
 Stretcher bond
 Dutch bond
 Header bond
 Brick on edge bond
 English bond
 English cross bond
 Flemish bond
 Facing bond
 Garden wall bond
Composite Masonry

 Sometimes the facing and backing of a wall are constructed with

different classes of masonry or of different materials.
 Following are the usual combination

 Facing of ashlar masonry and backing of rubble masonry brickwork

 Facing of stone slabs and backing of concrete or brickwork

 Facing of brickwork and backing of rubble masonry

 Facing of brickwork and backing of cement concrete

 Facing of brickwork and backing of hollow cement concrete blocks

Reinforced Masonry
It’s a wall material. Beam, slabs have been built but with exception of deep wall
beams.
It does not require shuttering and expensive element of concrete.
It lies in walls subject to bending perpendicular to the wall beams.
It combines flexibility of form with good finish and frequently a large cost
saving compared with reinforced concrete.
Reinforced masonry is thus a cheap, durable, fire – proof, easy to construct and
in most cases it results in the increase of floor space due to adoption of
brickwork of lesser thickness.
Reinforced Masonry Walls
Masonry Reinforced Columns
Reinforced Masonry Lintels
Reinforced Masonry Slab
Flooring
Floors are the horizontal elements of a building structures which divide the
building into different levels for the purpose of creating more accommodation
within a restricted space one above the other and provide support for the
occupants, furniture and equipment of a building.
•
 Mud & Murram Rubber
 Flag – Stone or Stone • Linoleum
 Brick
• Cork or Cork tiles
 Timber
• Magnesite
 Cement concrete & Concrete
• Glass
 Mosaic

 Terrazzo • Marble

 Granolithic • Plastic or PVC

 Tiled
• Asphalt
Roofing
Roof is the uppermost part of a building which is supported on
structural members and covered with a roofing material. The main
function of a roof is to enclose the space or building and to protect the
same from the damaging effects of weather elements such as rain, wind,
heat, snow, etc., A good roof also increases the life of the building.
 Pitched or Sloping Roofs

 Flat or Terrace Roofs

 Shell or Curved Roofs

 Domes
Pitched Roof or Sloping Roof
 Single Roof  Triple – membered or Framed or

Lean – to Roof Trussed Roof

Couple Roof
King post roof truss
Couple close Roof
Queen post roof truss
Collar beam Roof
Collar & Scissors Roof Combinations of both truss

Double or Purlin Roof Mansard roof truss

Truncated roof truss

Belfast roof or bow string or latticed

roof truss
Foundation

 The structure which is in direct contact with the ground. It transfers

the load of the structure to the soil below so as to avoid over – loading
of the soil beneath.
 It prevents the differential settlement by evenly loading the substrata.

 It provides a level surface for building operations.

 It also increases stability of structure by taking the structure deep into

the ground.
 Foundations are generally built of bricks, stones, concrete, steel, etc.,

 The selection of material and type of foundation depends upon the

type structure and the nature of underlying soil.
 Foundations should be designed to be capable of being constructed
economically and without risk of protracted delays.
Types of Foundation
Open or Shallow foundation

Wall footing
Isolated footing

Combined footing
Inverted arch footing

Continuous footing
Cantilever footing

Grillage footing
Raft foundation
Pile Foundation
Function Material & Composition
Bearing piles Cement concrete piles
Friction piles Pre cast concrete piles
Screw piles Cast in situ concrete piles
Compaction piles Timber piles
Uplift piles Steel piles
Batter piles Sand piles
Sheet piles Composite piles

Well Foundation or Caisson

Construction Joints
Construction joints are provided construction stopped at end of day

Proper bond between old work & new one(necessary to ensure)

Joints may be horizontal or vertical

In construction of large concrete members airfield pavements, road

pavements, factory floors, residential floors, columns in framed structure
cannot place concrete in one operation

Joints are left between subsequent concreting operation

Types of joints are

Construction joint

Expansion joints

Contraction joints
Construction joint

Temporary joint

Position should be planned and concrete should be placed in one

operation.

Walls & columns – horizontal, vertical

Beams & slabs – minimum shear

Appearance disturbed

Expansion joint
Volume changed

Floor, roof – joint not necessary for small building

Large building – joint necessary(2-5cm)

Maximum temperature : day : expansion

Minimum temperature : night : contraction

 Contraction joint
 Plastic, drying shrinkage, concrete shrinks

 Avoid cracks – joints provided 5 -10 m

 Dummy or control joints

 Unreinforced floors and pavements

Precast concrete piles

 Piles are manufactured in factory & driven into ground. Tampered or

parallel
 Square, octagonal shaped cast in horizontal forms, round shaped cast in
vertical forms
 Size 30 – 50cm, length – 18m or more

 Reinforcement is used for stress.

 Main or vertical reinforcement 20 – 40mm, lateral 5 – 10mm, spacing -

10cm( top, bottom), intermediate - 30cm
 Toe : steel shoe
Casting
Form work prepared and coated with soap solution or oil to prevent
adhesion

Cage of reinforcement is prepared, placed in formwork with cover

50mm

Concrete 1:2:2 or 1:2:4, CA – 10 to 25 mm size

Pour concrete in formwork and consolidated with vibrators

Formwork removed in 3days, remains 7days and then shifted to curing tank
for 3 to 4 weeks
Advantage
Position of reinforcement not disturbed from original position

Piles can driven under water. Sulphate resistance

Proper control & design is possible while manufacture

Defect of cast is repaired before driven into the ground

More piles are manufactured at convenient place & economical

Pile is smooth while driving it takes load, no wastage of time

High resistance to biological & chemical actions on ground

Disadvantage
 Heavy weight : transport, driven is difficult
 Costly extra reinforcement is provided to resist stresses
develop during handling & driving
 Wastage of material, if long pile is manufactured
 Sufficient care should to taken while transport or driving
 Piles not available – delay of work occur
 Size, length of pile depend on available transport facility
Slip forms
Essential parts of slip forms are as follows

Sheathing
Wales or ribs

Yokes
Working platform or deck

Suspended scaffolding
Lifting devices
Operation
Over concrete base, slip form set is assembled and filled with concrete
After setting of concrete, sufficient rigidity in bottom then upward
movement started from bottom to top.

Depending upon temperature, properties of concrete lifting rate is 50

to 80mm

Experienced person is employed for movement of slip form while

moving

Uses
Vertical structures : economical
Used for piers, chimneys, towers, missile launching bases, water
reservoirs, silos, resolving restaurants, etc.,
Removal
Some factors: amount & nature of dead load

Character & quality of concrete

Shape, span & situation of structure

Temperature of the atmosphere

2-3 days remove formwork – beam sides

10-21 days – between beam, floors

Use rapid hardening cement within 3-4 days formwork can removed

High – alumina cement, takes few hours to remove formwork

Scaffolding
Temporary structure gives support to workman, structural material,
other appliances, etc.,
Used in building construction, demolition, maintenance & repair works
Erected either one(ordinary works) or both sides of walls(superior
works) and heights can adjusted
Components
Planks – supporting men, materials, appliances
Guard boards – working on ledgers level to guard materials
Toe boards – parallel to ledgers for protection
Types
Single or bricklayers scaffoldings – BW used in construction, made of
bamboos, poles except platform, single standard 1.5 to 2m, spacing 1.2m,
ledgers 1.2 – 1.5m, put legs 1.2 – 1.5m

Double scaffolding – stronger, stone work, two rows

Ladder scaffolding – easily assembled, platform supported on brackets,
heights can adjusted, used in light works such as exterior walls, paintings,
decorations

Cantilever scaffolding – Where standard not possible to fix in ground, busy

street, traffic areas, upper storey of tall buildings

Suspended scaffolding – light steel frame construction, maintenance work

such as paintings, pointing, distempering, etc., working platform is
suspended from roofs by means of wire ropes or chains
Steel scaffolding – same as timber scaffolding except wooden members are
replaced by steel tubes and rope
Removal

Walls, beams, column sides(low load)

Slabs

Heavy load, girders, beam bottom

Walls, columns, beams sides : 1 – 2 days

Slabs : 3
Beam soffit (under) : 7

Slab upto 4.5 : 7, over 4.5 :14

Beams upto 6 : 14
Arches over 6 : 21
Fabrication & Erection of Trusses
Roof trusses : principle rafters, ties, struts, purlin, cleats etc., gusset plates,
rivets, bolts
Use of steel trusses proves to economical for span >12m

Steel roof trusses designed should be compression or tension (no bending

stress)

Arrangement & size depends upon roof slope, span, loading wind pressure
distance

Compression member strut : short to avoid buckling, principle rafter :

transverse stresses not larger than 3m & maximum
T section best for principle rafter, channel for struts
Small trusses fabricated in factory or workshop & transport to site while
large trusses fabricated at the job site

Truss should be arranged to form triangles – truss not deform

Distance not exceed 3m, light roofs – more distance or spacing

Joints or connection of member called nodes or panel points, gusset plates

In rivets, pitch should not less than 3times diameter. L < 7 18mm diameter
rivets, L > 7 20mm diameter rivets
Gusset plate thickness 6mm(small) & 10mm(large) roof trusses

Three types of trusses north light roof trusses – factories, workshop, Bow
string type trusses – 20m span, arched truss

Small span end of truss fixed, large span one fixed, one end mounted on
steel rollers
Air conditioning of buildings
Process of treating air to control temperature, humid purity
distribution to meet the meet the requirement of conditioned
Classification of air conditioning

Comfort – inside the room(Residential, institution, hospitals)

Industrial – material processing, manufacturing storage etc.,

Steps of air conditioning

Summer - outside temp is above inside temp , cycle of operation
involves air cooling, dehumidifying, air distribution & air cleaning
Winter – below, air heating, humidification

Composite - both
Principle of comfort air conditioning
Temperature control – comfortable zone for people both in summer & winter

Air velocity control – velocity increases, temperature decreases 6-9m/s

Humidity control – with conditioned air is important, dry air , moisture is

added to heated air(summer), moisture extracted from cool air, humidity 40
– 60%

Systems
Central system – one focal point, conditioned air is distributed to all room,
less space for installation, maintenance easy, one unit(economical), instead
of more unit for every room

Unit system – window

Unitary control – from central to every unit

Combined control –central or self conditioned, central or semi conditioned

Frames
In portal frames structural roof members are rigidly connected to column or post
for continuous structural member to withstand bending

North light RC portal frames

Span 9m, rafter south facing slope 221/2•, north 60• - 80•

Rafter divided into sections for convenience in casting & transporting

Rafter is bolted together, gutter, purlin to support wood wool slabs

Slabs(insulators) – roof deck covered with north light glazing

Flat RC portal frames monitors

Two span portal type – monitor light provided, made of glazing, open for
ventilation

At junction of monitor light & flat roof – large heavy precast reinforced concrete
beams are bolted to frame

Serve for fixing roof covering & glazing

Domes
Semi – spherical or semi elliptical in shape
Used as roof structure – material stone,
brick or concrete
Types of domes

Supported on regular or circular polygon Spherical domes

shaped walls Cylindrical domes

Certain height, diameter ratios, small Rectangular domes

thickness Triangular domes
Used in monumental work(circular, Square domes
hexagonal shape)
Intersecting double
Domes can be either smooth shell domes curved barrel domes
or ribbed domes
Braced domes
Oldest structural form, arch, three dimensional structure

Enclose maximum space with minimum surface & economical in terms of

material

Material – high strength alloy(magnesium alloy, aluminum alloys)

Types

Frame or skeleton type – single layer dome

Truss type – double layer dome, extremely rigid provides greater resistance
to buckling, suitable for layer spans
Stressed skin type – covering part an integral part of structural system

Framed surface type – bent sheets interconnected along edges to form

main skeleton
Acoustics
The branch of science which deals with the planning of building or hall
with a view to provide best audible sound to the audience
Features of good acoustics

The sound heard must be sufficiently loud in every part of the hall and no
echoes should be present

The total quality of speech and music must be changed ie., relative
intensities of several components of a complex sound must be maintained

The successive syllables spoken must be clear and distinct

The reverberation should be quite proper ie., neither too low nor too high

There should not be any concentration of sound in any portion of hall

The boundaries should be sufficiently sound proof
Acoustical defects

Formation of echoes
Reverberation

Sound foci & dead spots

Insufficient loudness
Exterior noise nuisance or out door noise effects
Fire Protection in Buildings
For important buildings in addition to the use of fire resisting materials
and adoption of fire resistant construction, the following general measure
of safety have been recommended

Alarm system
Manual alarm system

Automatic alarm system

Fire extinguishing arrangements

Normally operated equipments

Fire hydrants

Automatic sprinkler system

Escape routes
Thank you