CONSTRUCTION METHODS BASICS

Types of foundations and construction methods;

There are two main types of foundations: shallow foundations and deep foundations.
i)Shallow Foundation

They are typically used for small to medium-sized buildings built on stable soil.(where L ≤ B)
1. Wall Footings.
2. Combined footings.
3. Cantilever footings.
4. Mat or raft foundations.
5. Wall footing or Spread footing or strip footing.
6. Isolated footings.
7. Inverted arch footings.
8. Grillage footings or Grillage foundation.

Procedure for Construction of Foundation:

1. Write a work description that includes the tasks, references, calculations, types of equipment,
and labor requirements.
2. Ensure you have approved drawings good for construction.
3. Prepare BBS for foundation and order reinforcement also ensure that materials are stored on-site
correctly.
4. Request the survey department to mark the foundation centers and sizes including the work
space.
5. Perform excavation manually digging or using machines depending on nature, depth of soil, and
water table, sometimes you can resort to dewatering to keep the water well below the foundation
level.
6. Do not dig more, excavation must be made top by lean concrete.
7. Do not expose the foundation level for a long time, ensure that lean concrete is poured as soon as
it reaches the foundation level.
8. Inspect foundation level for loose material or soft patches.
9. Lean concrete is typically 75 mm in thickness.
10. After PCC or lean concrete, install reinforcements including column reinforcements or dowels,
shutter the foundation, and use the required size concrete cover at the bottom and sides of the
reinforcement.
11. In the middle east they build waterproof membrane on lean concrete that wraps the entire
foundation as protection (also known as tanking).

12. Once rebars is placed, you need to dust off the cover and the foundation should be inspected.

13. Concrete Pouring provides with all the tests you need to perform before casting.
14. You order the correct grade concrete + check the temperature + temperature before pouring the
concrete.
15. Compact the concrete in layers using a concrete vibrator without leading to segregation of
concrete.
16. Cast the cubes to test in 7 and 28 days.
17. Fix cast concrete for minimum oil days if it is wet curing.
18. De-shattering of vertical faces is usually 24 to 48 hours.
19. Once de shuttered and cured foundation is provided with coating or membrane protection.
20. Finally the foundations are backfilled by selected approved fill materials in layers of 200 mm
or less to 95% degree.

ii) Deep Foundation :

A deep foundation is a type of foundation which is placed at a greater depth below the ground
surface and transfers structure loads to the earth at depth. The depth to width ratio of such a
foundation is usually greater than 4 to 5. (where L>B)

 Pile Foundation: Vertical structural members (piles) driven into the ground to transfer
loads to deeper, more stable soil or rock layers.
 Caisson Foundation: Large-diameter, hollow cylindrical structures that are sunk into
the ground and then filled with concrete, providing support for heavy structures like
bridges and high-rise buildings.
 Pier Foundation: Similar to piles but with larger diameter, used to support heavy loads
or where soil conditions are poor.

Construction Methods:
 Traditional Construction: Involves building foundations using conventional
materials like concrete, steel, and masonry.
 Precast Concrete: Components like footings and piles are precast off-site and then
transported and installed at the construction site.
 Steel Framing: Steel beams and columns can be used in foundation construction for
their strength and durability.
 Drilled Shafts: Deep holes drilled into the ground and filled with concrete, forming
the foundation for structures like bridges and tall buildings.
 Helical Piles: Screw-like piles screwed into the ground to provide support,
particularly useful in areas with soft or loose soil.

Formwork:
 Definition: Formwork refers to the temporary or permanent molds into which
concrete or other materials are poured to create the desired shape and structure of a
building element, such as walls, columns, beams, and slabs.
 Materials: Formwork can be made from various materials, including timber,
plywood, steel, aluminum, plastic, or composite materials.
 Types of Formwork:
1. Traditional Formwork: Constructed using timber and plywood panels,
suitable for small to medium-sized projects.
 2. Engineered Formwork: Prefabricated formwork systems made of steel,
aluminum, or composite materials, offering greater efficiency, reusability, and
flexibility.
3. Climbing Formwork: Used for vertical structures like walls and cores,
allowing for incremental construction and climbing as the concrete is poured
and cured.
4. Slip Formwork: Continuous formwork system used for constructing tall
structures like towers and silos, with the formwork moving upward as concrete
is poured.
 Assembly and Disassembly: Formwork is assembled on-site according to
construction drawings and specifications. Once the concrete has cured to the required
strength, the formwork is disassembled and removed for reuse or recycling.

Staging (Scaffolding):
 Definition: Staging, commonly known as scaffolding, is a temporary structure
erected to support workers, materials, and equipment during construction,
maintenance, or repair of buildings and other structures.
 Materials: Staging can be constructed from steel, aluminum, wood, or a combination
of these materials.
 Types of Staging:
1. Supported (Frame) Scaffolding: Consists of vertical frames connected by
horizontal and diagonal braces, providing support from the ground.
2. Suspended Scaffolding: Hangs from the top of a structure, often used for tasks
like window washing or exterior maintenance.
3. Mobile (Rolling) Scaffolding: Mounted on wheels or casters for easy
mobility, commonly used in painting, plastering, and other interior finishing
work.
4. Cantilever Scaffolding: Extends horizontally from a supported structure,
useful when access is needed around obstacles or overhangs.
 Assembly and Safety: Staging must be erected by trained personnel following safety
guidelines and regulations to prevent accidents and ensure stability and strength.
Guardrails, toe boards, and other safety measures are installed to protect workers from
falls and hazards.

Difference Formwork and Staging :-

Feature Formwork Staging

Purpose Shapes and supports wet concrete Provides elevated work platforms

Materials Wood, metal, plastic Wood, metal

Reusability Can be knock-down or modular Usually designed for reuse

Dismantling Removed after concrete cures Dismantled as construction progresses

Common building construction methods (conventional walls and slabs);

1.Load-Bearing Masonry Construction:

 Description: Load-bearing masonry construction relies on walls made of bricks, concrete

blocks, or stone that bear the weight of the structure and transfer it to the foundation.

 Process: Masonry walls are built layer by layer, with bricks or blocks stacked and bonded
together using mortar. The walls provide both structural support and enclosure.

 Applications: Commonly used in low-rise buildings, residential homes, and small

commercial structures.

2.Reinforced Concrete Frame Construction:

 Description: Reinforced concrete frame construction utilizes concrete columns, beams, and
slabs reinforced with steel bars (rebar) to create a structural frame that supports the
building's load.

 Process: Concrete is poured into formwork to create columns, beams, and slabs, with steel
reinforcement placed within to enhance strength and durability.

 Applications: Suitable for a wide range of building types, including high-rise buildings,
bridges, parking structures, and industrial facilities.

3.Steel Frame Construction:

 Description: Steel frame construction involves the use of structural steel members, such
as columns, beams, and steel studs, to create the building's framework.

 Process: Steel members are fabricated off-site and then erected on-site, bolted or welded
together to form the structural skeleton of the building.

 Applications: Commonly used in commercial buildings, warehouses, industrial

facilities, and high-rise construction due to steel's strength, versatility, and speed of
construction.
4.Precast Concrete Construction:

Description: Precast concrete construction involves casting structural elements, such as walls,
slabs, beams, and columns, off-site in a controlled environment and then transporting them to the
construction site for assembly.

Process: Precast elements are manufactured using reusable molds, allowing for efficient
production and high-quality finishes. They are then transported to the site and lifted into place
using cranes.

Applications: Widely used in residential, commercial, and industrial construction for its speed,
quality, and durability.

5.Timber Frame Construction:

Description: Timber frame construction utilizes wooden members, such as posts, beams, and
studs, to create the building's framework.

Process: Wooden members are assembled on-site using traditional joinery techniques or modern
fasteners to create the structural frame.

Applications: Commonly used in residential homes, cabins, and low-rise commercial buildings for
its aesthetic appeal, sustainability, and energy efficiency.

Slabs:
1. Cast-in-Place Concrete Slabs:

 Description: Concrete is poured directly on-site onto a prepared subgrade with

reinforcement (steel rebar) for added strength.
 Materials: Concrete, steel reinforcing bars (rebar), formwork for shaping.
 Advantages: Strong and durable, fire-resistant, can be shaped to different layouts.
 Disadvantages: Requires formwork construction, time-consuming due to curing process,
needs skilled workers.

2. Precast Concrete Slabs:

 Description: Pre-fabricated concrete slabs manufactured off-site and then lifted into place
with a crane.
 Materials: Precast concrete slabs, lifting equipment.
 Advantages: Faster construction than cast-in-place, good quality control from factory
production.
 Disadvantages: Requires lifting equipment, limited design flexibility compared to cast-in-
place methods, may require additional support beams.
conventional framed structure with blockwork walls;

1. Structural Frame Construction:

Materials: The structural frame is typically constructed using steel or reinforced concrete
columns and beams. These elements provide the primary support for the building and transfer loads
to the foundation.

Process: Columns and beams are erected according to the building's design and structural
drawings. Steel columns may be bolted or welded in place, while reinforced concrete columns are
cast in situ or precast off-site and installed.

Floor Systems: The floor system, which can be made of reinforced concrete slabs or steel
decking supported by beams, is installed on top of the structural frame to create each floor level.

2. Blockwork Wall Construction:

Materials: Blockwork walls are constructed using concrete blocks made of precast concrete or
hollow clay bricks. Mortar is used to bond the blocks together and create a solid wall system.

Process: Blockwork walls are built around the structural frame to provide enclosure and
partitioning. The walls are constructed layer by layer, with blocks stacked and aligned according to
the building's layout and design.

Opening for Doors and Windows: Openings for doors and windows are left within the
blockwork walls during construction. Structural lintels or reinforced concrete beams are installed
above these openings to support the load from the wall above.

3. Integration of Services:

Electrical and Plumbing: Spaces within the blockwork walls are left for electrical wiring,
plumbing pipes, and HVAC ductwork. Chase channels or conduits may be incorporated into the
walls during construction to accommodate these services.

Insulation: Insulation materials may be installed within the cavities of blockwork walls to
improve thermal efficiency and acoustic performance. This can include rigid foam insulation,
mineral wool, or other suitable materials.

4. Finishing and Cladding:

Exterior Finishes: Once the blockwork walls are constructed, exterior finishes such as stucco,
brick veneer, stone cladding, or siding may be applied to provide weather protection and enhance
the building's aesthetics.

Interior Finishes: Interior finishes such as drywall, plaster, paint, or wall tiles are applied to the
blockwork walls to create a finished interior space.

5. Roof Construction:

Roof Structure: Depending on the design of the building, the roof may be constructed using
timber trusses, steel framing, or reinforced concrete beams and slabs.
 Roof Covering: Roof covering materials such as asphalt shingles, metal panels, concrete tiles, or
roofing membranes are installed to provide waterproofing and protection from the elements.

Modular construction methods for repetitive works

Modular construction methods are gaining popularity for repetitive works due to their efficiency,
speed, and cost-effectiveness. Modular construction involves building components or entire
sections of a structure off-site in a factory-controlled environment, then transporting and
assembling them on-site. This approach is particularly suitable for projects with repetitive
elements, such as housing developments, hotels, student accommodations, and certain types of
commercial buildings. Here's how modular construction methods work for repetitive works:

Concept:

 Buildings are constructed from prefabricated, standardized volumetric units built in a

controlled factory environment.
 These modules are then transported to the building site and assembled on-site.

Benefits for Repetitive Works:

 Increased Efficiency: Repetitive tasks like framing, installing walls, electrical wiring,
and plumbing are done in a controlled environment, leading to faster production and
higher quality control.
 Reduced Construction Time: Since modules are prefabricated, on-site construction
time is significantly reduced. This translates to faster project completion and earlier
occupancy.
 Less Labor on Site: Less labor is needed on-site because most of the work is done off-
site in the factory. This can help with labor cost control and scheduling.
 Improved Quality: Factory-controlled environments typically have stricter quality
control measures compared to on-site construction. This leads to fewer defects and a
more consistent final product.
 Reduced Waste: Modular construction often minimizes on-site waste as materials are
pre-cut and measured in the factory, reducing the amount of scrap material.

Types of Repetitive Works Benefiting from Modular Construction:

 Hotel Rooms: Hotel room layouts are often repetitive, making them ideal candidates for
modular construction. Each room can be built as a complete module in the factory.
 Apartments: Similar to hotels, apartment buildings with repetitive floor plans benefit
from modular construction. Individual apartments or sections of a floor can be
prefabricated.
 Student Dorms: Dorm rooms typically have similar layouts, making them suitable for
modular construction.
 School Classrooms: Schools often have repetitive classroom layouts, allowing for
modular construction of these spaces.
  Healthcare Facilities: Specific sections of a healthcare facility, like patient rooms or
examination rooms, can be modularized for faster construction.

Challenges of Modular Construction:

 Transportation Costs: Moving large modules can be expensive, especially for projects
far from the factory.
 Design Limitations: Modular construction is most efficient with repetitive layouts.
Highly customized designs may not be suitable.
 Site Preparation: The building site needs to be prepared to efficiently receive and
assemble the modules.
 Upfront Planning: Modular construction requires detailed upfront planning to ensure
modules fit together seamlessly.

Precast concrete construction methods:

Precast concrete construction methods offer several advantages over traditional on-site concrete
construction. The manufacturing process allows for greater control over the quality of the concrete,
resulting in a more consistent product. Precast components are also more durable and resistant to
weather and wear, and can be designed to meet specific safety requirements, such as for seismic or
hurricane resistance.

Overview

Precast concrete construction methods involve creating building components off-site in a factory or
manufacturing facility, and then transporting them to the construction site for assembly. These
components include walls, floors, beams, columns, and other building elements.
Precast concrete offers a range of benefits including speed of construction, improved quality
control, reduced on-site labour requirements, and the ability to create complex shapes and finishes.
The process begins with the creation of moulds or forms, which are used to shape the concrete into
the desired components. Once the concrete is poured into the moulds, it is allowed to cure for a
specified period of time, typically 28 days. During this time, the concrete gains strength and
durability.
Types of Pre-casting Methods:

The wet-cast method is the most common method of pre-casting concrete. In this method, a mould
is created for the desired shape and size of the concrete element. The mould is then filled with wet
concrete that is vibrated to remove any air pockets and achieve proper compaction. Once the
concrete has set, the mould is removed, and the product is cured in a controlled environment to
ensure proper strength development.

 Dry-cast method
The dry-cast method, also known as zero-slump concrete, is a process where the concrete is
compacted by external vibration without the addition of water. This method is mainly used for the
production of large, complex shapes, such as hollow-core slabs and concrete pipes. Dry-cast
concrete is denser and more durable than wet-cast concrete, making it suitable for heavy-duty
applications.

 Precast prestressed concrete method

In the precast prestressed concrete method, high-strength steel cables, known as tendons, are placed
inside the mould before the concrete is poured. The tendons are then tensioned to compress the
concrete, which increases its strength and durability. This method is used to produce large, heavy-
duty components, such as beams and columns, for use in bridges and other infrastructure projects.

 Autoclaved aerated concrete method

The Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC) method is a type of precast concrete that uses a mixture
of cement, lime, sand, and water, combined with a foaming agent. The mixture is poured into a
mould and then autoclaved, which cures the product and creates a lightweight, cellular material that
has excellent insulation properties. AAC is commonly used for wall and floor panels in residential
and commercial buildings.

 Vacuum concrete method

In the vacuum concrete method, the concrete mix is placed into a mould that is then sealed and
connected to a vacuum pump. The pump creates a vacuum that removes the air from the concrete,
allowing it to achieve maximum compaction and density. This method is suitable for the
production of precast concrete products that require high strength and durability, such as railway
sleepers and bridge components.

Basics of Slip forming for tall structures:

The slipform construction technique is a rapid and a economic construction method compared to the
conventional formwork technique. This helps to achieve huge cost saving. The technique is best
suitable for large building structures and bridges. When small structures are concerned, the projects
with identical geometry can be easily completed by slipform construction.

Continuous movement of formwork in upward direction is performed in slip form technique. The
movement is facilitated by hydraulic jacks and jack rods. In the construction of vertical structures, the
rate of rising the formwork upwards will be almost in the rate of 300mm per hour. These rise with the
help of the supports from other permanent parts of the building.

Components of Slipform

The slipform system is designed with varied features. Generally, it consist of yoke legs. Yoke legs are
employed to lift and sustain the weight of the entire structure, so that it behaves as a single unit. Yoke
legs are also used to connect with the beams, scaffoldings and working platforms to serve the
supporting purpose.
To the yoke legs, walk-away brackets are connected. These walkway brackets will enable proper
placement of the concrete.

The whole slipform assembly is lifted by means of strand rods and lifting jacks. These primary
components are located at equal intervals so that the uniform and good distribution of weight is
performed. In some construction, lifting process are supported by means of hydraulic pump
components.

The Process:

 Continuous Formwork: Unlike conventional methods with repeated formwork assembly

and disassembly, slip forming uses a continuously moving form. This formwork can be
made of steel or other sturdy materials.
 Hydraulic Lifting: The formwork is equipped with hydraulic jacks that allow for
continuous, vertical lifting. These jacks typically raise the formwork in small increments,
like 25-30 mm, at regular intervals, often 24 hours a day.
 Concrete Placement: Fresh concrete is continuously poured into the top of the moving
formwork. The concrete needs to be specially formulated to balance workability (for proper
placement and finishing) with fast setting times to gain strength before exiting the bottom of
the form.

Applications
1. Construction of Regular core high rise structures
2. Slipform Technique for Chimney Construction
3. Construction of Steel Tanks
4. Construction of Water Towers
Advantages of Slipform Construction Technique

1. Non-stop Method of Construction

2. Increase rate of construction
3. Increase the productivity
4. Provide more working space
5. Creates safe work environment for the workers
6. Employs less accessory equipment
7. Increase flexibility in construction
8. Reduced Labor costs
9. Scaffolding and temporary works in construction is reduced
10. Uniform wall sections and layouts are obtained

Disadvantages of Slipform Construction Technique

1. High –cost for initial setup

2. Requires Specialized workers and expertise
3. Need sophisticated Equipment
4. Dimensional Accuracy can go low in certain conditions

Basic construction methods for steel structures;

The design of a steel structure can be done in one of three ways: simple, continuous, or semi-
continuous. To simplify design calculations, joints in structures have been considered to behave as
either pinned or flexible.

Simple design of steel structure

The most conventional method is a simple design, which is still used frequently. Bracing or, in
some multi-story buildings, concrete cores are typically used to ensure a structure’s resilience to
lateral loads and sway.

The designer must be aware of the joint response presumptions and make sure that the connections
are detailed in a manner that prevents any moments from arising that can negatively impact the
structure’s performance.

The types of details that meet this condition have been demonstrated through many years of
experience, and the designer should take note of the typical connections on joints in uncomplicated
construction.

Continuous design of steel structures

Joints that transfer moments between parts are supposed to be stiff in continuous design. Frame
action is what keeps the frame from swaying.
The frame analysis is frequently done using the software since the continuous design is more
sophisticated than the basic design. Continuous frames must be designed with realistic pattern
loading combinations in mind.

Depending on whether the frame is designed using an elastic or a plastic method, the connections
between the members must have differing properties.

In a flexible design, the joints must have enough rotational stiffness to ensure that the forces and
moments distributed throughout the frame don’t diverge noticeably from the calculated values.

The joint needs to be strong enough to support the moments, forces, and shears that result from the
frame analysis.

The strength of the joint, not its stiffness, is the most crucial factor in plastic design for calculating the
maximum load capacity. Whether plastic hinges are found in the joints or the members will depend on
how strong the joint is, which will significantly impact how the structure collapses.

If joints are intended to have hinges, the joint must be specified with enough ductility to support the
ensuing rotations. When computing sway stability, sway deflections, and beam deflections, the
stiffness of the joints will be crucial.

Semi-continuous design of steel structure

True semi-continuous design is more complicated than basic or continuous design because the
actual joint response is more accurately represented. The development of analytical routines
that closely track the actual connection behaviour is extremely labour-intensive and not suitable
for routine design.

For both braced and unbraced frames, there are two streamlined processes, which are briefly
discussed below. Unbraced frames produce lateral load resistance from the bending moments in
the columns and beams, whereas braced frames use a bracing system or a core to generate this
resistance.

Basics of construction methods for Bridges:

Different Methods of Bridge Construction

1. Cast-in-situ Method of Bridge Construction

This method is a flexible method of bridge construction where complex and unusual
geometrical shapes of dams can be constructed easily. Situations when it is hard to transport
pre-fabricated elements either due to size or unreachability, this method is a good choice .

2. Balanced Cantilever Method of Bridge Construction

This method is used for constructing bridges with span 50 to 250m. The bridge constructed can
either be cast-in-place or precast. Here, the segments are attached in an alternative manner at
opposite ends of the cantilevers supported by piers. This is the best choice for the construction
of long span length bridges, irregular length, and cable-stayed bridges.

3. Precast Method of Bridge Construction

In this method, the bridge is constructed with the help of precast concrete elements. The
prefabrication is performed in different methods. The precast elements include:

 Precast Beams
 Precast Decks
 Precast Segmental Decks
4. Span by Span Casting method of Bridge Construction

This method is associated with cantilever construction method but with many advancements in
the technique, it is considered as most economic and rapid in construction. For long bridges and
viaducts with an individual span up to 60m, the method is feasible. Decks are begun at one
abutment and constructed continuously by placing segments to the other end of the bridge.
Segments can be positioned by either a temporary staying mast system through more commonly
using an assembly truss.

5. Incremental Launching Method of Bridge Construction

The Incremental Launching Method (ILM) method of bridge construction is employed mainly
for the construction of continuous concrete bridges or steel girder bridges. The method
performs the procedure in increments. With this method of construction, the bridge deck is built
in sections by pushing the structure outwards from an abutment towards the pier. The ILM
method can be used for bridge decks with a length greater than 250m.

6. Cable-Stayed Method of Bridge Construction

In the cable-stayed method of construction, cables are used to carry the bridge deck from one or
both sides of the supporting tower. The cables carry and transfer all the loads to the
foundations. Cable-stayed method of construction is used for constructing bridges that span
more than 300m.

7. Arch Method for Bridge Construction

Arch shaped bridge construction is one of the most economical choices when the bridge under
consideration is required to cross over landscapes that are inaccessible. Many modern arch
construction methods have made the arch construction more economical. The arch construction
can be built with concrete or pre-cast concrete. The cast-in-situ free cantilever method and slip
formed sections are two main construction techniques coming under arch methods.

Factors Affecting Selection of Bridge Construction Methods

Before a bridge can be built an appropriate method of construction must be chosen. The
decision is made by the design team. The principle factors considered by the design team when
choosing a suitable method of construction are given below:

1. The scale of the bridge

2. The obstacles to be crossed
3. The regularity of the span lengths
4. The horizontal and vertical profiles of the bridge decks
5. The nature of the soil strata
6. The local weather
7. The local cost of materials
8. The local labour markets
9. The accessibility of the site
10.The time allowed for construction.

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