Submitted by: Maryjen Delena

Section/Block: Block C

Submitted to: Mr. Santiago Kadusale

Discourse
 It is the use of words to exchange thoughts and
ideas in an orderly and organized manner. It  deals
not only with grammar aspect of language but
also with the features of the text and the
relationship of words to one another.
Discourse Markers
 Or conjunctions ,connectives, and linking
devices- help connect ideas to form logical texts.
Text is  the "data" in which ideas are presented in
print form. Merriam Dictionary defines it as  "the
original words of piece of writing or a speech". But
before you can even create a logical text through
discourse, you have to be guided by writing – its
rules and processes.
 Writing
 Writing in its literal sense , is the formation of
visible letters or characters as you express your
thoughts. The act of writing similar to the act of
weaving threads to create  cloth ; ideas are woven
together by connecting one idea to another to
create an organized text. When you write, keep in
mind that it is important for readers to grasp what
you to convey.
 Parts of the paragraph
1.Descriptive paragraph – This type of paragraph
 describe something  and shows the reader what a
thing or a person is like. The words chosen in the
description often appeal to the five senses of touch,
smell, sight sound, and taste.

2. Narrative paragraph – This type of paragraph tells

a story. There's a sequence of action or there's a clear
beginning, middle, and end to the paragraph.
3. Expository – This type of paragraph explains
something or provides instruction. It could also
describe a process and move. The reader step by step
through a method .

4. Persuasive paragraph – This type of paragraph tries

to get the reader to accept a particular point of view
or understand the writer's position.
  Define Reading
- Reading is a cognitive process of decoding symbols
to derive meaning from a text.

Applying Effective Reading Strategies

1. Previewing – means looking at the readily visible
parts of the text, like title and subtitles , visuals ,
graphs , pictures and charts. Previewing helps you
familiarize the contents of the selection and focus on
the important information in the text.
2. Skimming – means you look for the main point of the reading
 and identify the ideas that develop it. Skimming effectively
means physically moving your eyes rapidly along the page and
tracing your finger along the lines of the text to speed up your
reading.

3. Scanning – the reading is looking for the specific information.

To scan the text effectively , you need to have an idea of the
details you are looking for. The instruction of your teacher or
questions about the text may help in knowing what to scan for.
 Using Context Clues
- After using previous strategies to go over the gist of the
text , you are now ready to have a closer look at some parts
of the reading. One technique to improve your reading
comprehension and reading pace is using context clues.

Context Clues- are words , phrases and sentences that

surround an unfamiliar word that can help you recognize
the meaning of an unknown word because the text gives
you information about it.
The most common types of context
clues are the following:
1. Synonyms – are used when the text words or phrases that
are similar in meaning to the unknown word. Through their
meanings are similar they are not exactly the same because a
word may have different association with it. 

2. Antonyms – is a word that reveals the opposite meaning in

relation to the unknown word. When you see words like
"although" ,"but"  "despite", "instead", "in contrast",
"unlike", "however" , "even though", "on the contrary", and
"conversely". These usually precede antonym because these
are used to show contrasting ideas.
Using Connotation and Denotation
Another way of improving your comprehension of a text is
trying to understand the different meaning that particular
words can have. Words only make sense to us if we
understand what they mean. Two ways of describing the
meaning of a word are called denotation and connotation.
Denotation is the basic, precise , literal meaning of the word
that can be found in a dictionary. Connotation ,meanwhile , is
the positive , negative, or neutral feelings , attitudes,  or
associations  with a word. These shades of meaning are
affected by socials overtones, emotional meanings, or cultural
implications.
To illustrate  the difference between denotation and
connotation , compare the following meanings  of the
words" father" and "daddy".
Father
    Denotation                                        a male parent
    Connotation                                        - association: positive 
                                                                  - feelings : love and respect

Daddy                    
  Denotation                                      a male parent
  Connotation                                 - association : positive
                                                    - feelings : love ,familiarity,
childhood
 Critical Reading Skills
1. Keeping a reading journal – A reading journal is similar to
keeping a diary, except you are writing your feelings and
ideas in reaction to your reading assignment. This process
allows you to develop your impressions of the text and
connect them to your personal experiences.

2. Annotating the text – Annotating the text simply means

making notes on your copy of the reading. This includes
high-lighting or underlying important passages and writing
notes , comments, questions, and reactions on the margins.
3. Outlining the text – Creating a rough outline of the text
will also be helpful in getting to understand it more critically.
By locating the thesis statement , claims and evidences, and
then plotting these into an outline, you can see how the
writer structures, sequences, and connects his or her ideas.

4. Summarizing the text – Summarizing the text is similar to

outlining , in that you  need to get the gist. A summary
consist  of getting the main points of the essay and
important supporting details.
 Common Editing Symbols
  Finally, remember that writers usually note
errors in their drafts by making them with
editing  symbols. Though these symbols need
not be used in the editing process, they are
very helpful because they give the writer an
idea of how the specific error should be
corrected. For your reference , below is a list
of common editing symbols.
Defining Thesis Statement 
A thesis statement is the central idea of an  essay , around which all other
ideas remove. It is not just the most important idea; it also control the essay
by determining what you should or should not include in your work. In one
sentence, it reveals and summarizes the argument you intend to develop
and defend.
The thesis statement reflects your purpose for writing. It is a constant
reminder of your main point and your stand, directing the entire flow of
your writing.
It should be clear that the thesis statement is not the subject or topic
itself , but an interpretation of the topic. For example, if you were asked , to
write an essay on Noli Me Tangere or Martial Law during president Marco’s
Time , your thesis statement would inform important or debatable about it.
Formulating a Thesis Statement
The thesis statement comes as a result of pre-
writing. It is the product of thinking about your ideas
, seeking evidence and looking for relationships
between these. At times a potential thesis
statement may become clear to you , especially if an
interesting angle on an issue catches your attention.
Other times , you need to ask the following
questions to help you find out a thesis statement.
 What main idea does most of any pre-writing
support?
 What are the relationship that exist among my ideas?
 Which aspect of the topic seems to be given the most
detail?
 Where does my stand seem to be the most
consistent?
 What is the focus of the most interesting and
significance points of my pre-writing?
 What ideas should I do more research on?
 Narrative Devices
The use of narrative devices is a technique writers
utilize to add flavor and enrich the meaning of their
stories. With these devices , an author can shorten,
lengthen , and/or focus on a particular event in the
story.
 Anecdote
Anecdotes are brief narratives that are written
from the writer’s memory. It can be used as an
introduction to an essay , as an example to illustrate
a point , or as a closing statement that caps things off
nicely in your essay or as a memento to your reader
that will make him/her remember your narrative.
Flashback
A flashback is an event that happened in the past.
As the word itself suggest , you are “flashing back”
or quickly looking at something that had already
happened. It is not necessarily the focus of a story
the focus of a story , rather , more of an addition to
explain or to elaborate on a point made by the
writer in the narrative.
 Time Stretch
A time stretch is a single event in the story that
the author focuses writing about. In the Day the
Dancers Came the scene in which Fil is in the
Hamilton Hotel to greet the dancers can be
considered as an example of a time stretch. Santos
dedicated at least a page to describe how Fil felt like
an outsider- an outcast , an alien , a lonely old timer
amidst fellow countrymen- in a single scene.
Time Summary
As opposed to a time stretch in which a
single event is prolonged , a time summary is
characterized by jamming together multiple
events and/or shortening a relatively long
period of time .
Flash forward
As opposed to a flashback , a
flashback , a flash forward is an event ,
that has get to happen in the story. It is
“flashing forward{“ on quickly looking
at something that will happen in the
future.
Dialogue
A narrative does not only have a narrator
who tells a story in accordance to how
he/she observe a sequence of events.
Writers also include dialogues , a word or as
a series of words enclosed in a pair of
quotation marks, which signal the
character’s spoken language.
Defining
Is understanding the essence of a
word , an idea , a concept , or an
expressions.
1.Analysis
 is a process of breaking down a concept into its
constituent parts.
2. Collocation
- words or expressions are usually almost associated
with the concept you are trying to define.
3. Comparison
- associates the word or expressions you are trying
to define with something else not necessarily
synonymous with it.
4. Contrast
 understanding how at least two similar concepts are
different from each other.
5. Etymology
- the origin or the history of a word it explains the evolution
of a word or how it has come to be.
6. Exemplification and Illustration
- Exemplification is defining something by giving examples.
Illustration on the other hand; is giving an example and
forcing on it to elaborate on the concept you are trying to
define.
7. Extended Definition
 is a personal interpretation of an author to an
abstract and multifaceted concept.
8. Function
- another way of understanding what a word or
concept mean is to know its purpose.
9. Negation
- is a technique that you can use to define a word or
concept by explaining what it is not.
Comparison and Contrast
An essay that uses comparison and
contrast as it’s primary mode of paragraph
development is an essay that tackles the
likeness or similarities , and differences of at
least two subjects or topics.
Analogy
- is a common technique that writers use to
demonstrate comparison and contrast. It delves
beneath the surface differences of at least two
subjects expose unperceived and unsuspecting
similarities and/or differences. It is often used when
a foreign or abstract concept is compared with a
much more tangible or more familiar term for
readers to better understand the author’s intended
meaning.
Simile
- is done when there is a direct comparison between or among objects.
Ex. She was a peasant girl like Joan of Arc.
Your eyes are as bright as the stars in the sky.
Oxymoron
- happens when two seemingly opposite terms are juxtaposed next to
– or – near – each other in a single expression.
Ex. Act naturally , all alone, alone together , auto pilot , a blinding light
“,…dead in childbirth…”, deafening silence, a fine mess , a new classic ,
The Ugly Truth about Beauty ( the title of a humorous comparison and
contrast type of essay by Dave Berry)
Personification
- is done when non-humans (e.g. animals,
inanimate objects , abstractions) are assigned human
characterized and/or actions. Personification literally
means “ the process of making something human.
Ex. Love is blind , the sun is beating down on my
back, time is a betrayer- a villain , the wind is
howling.
Exemplification and Illustration
In the simple essay “ Lenten Speciality Dishes “,
Mickey Fenix makes use of exemplification the
process of enumerating or giving examples to give
advice as to which alternative dishes the readers can
eat during the Lenten Season when fasting is
observed .
A very practical purposes of function of
exemplification is final examples can make abstract
ideas more understandable to human perception.a
Visual Illustrations
 it appeals to the sense of sight. Since the eyesight is given primary
over the other human senses , you can use visual illustrations to
concretize abstract concepts like poverty & love.
Fact
-are concept , ideas and statements that are generally assumed true
,real , and/or existing.
Anecdotes
- are brief narratives within a peace of writing. They do not
necessarily serve as the focus, rather as supporting points or claims
that explain or elaborate that author’s intended argument.
Details
- detailing entails analyzing which is the process of breaking
down a concept of breaking down a concept or idea into its
constituent parts.
Opinions
- as opposed to factors , opinions individual interpretative of
people on certain events.
Observations
- similar to describing observation also make use of
descriptions- appealing to the five senses.
Planning your Research
A. Work with a familiar subject
Working with a familiar subject would be very convenient for
you as a researcher. You know what your sources are and where to
find them. You already have your own insights and assumptions
before you even start your research.
B. Try something new that piques your interest
If you want to try researching on something beyond your comfort
zone, go for what your curiosity leads you to. Explore your hobbies;
your favorite TV shows, movies, cartoons, anime, comics , and
authors; what you want to major in when you go to higher institutions
of learning: what you want to work on once you get a job.
II. Finding Primary Sources
Primary sources are very useful materials from which you can
acquire first-hand information. Unlike books whose information is
written by authors, primary sources give you material that you
were able to experience and acquire some example of primary
sources are observations and interviews.

A. Observations
Observing your surrounding s entails every little effort. All you
have to do is open your five senses to fake note of everything
that is happening around you. See ,smell, taste , hear, feel- all
these five senses have to be active.
C. Browse through available research materials
once you have decided which narrowed down
researcher topic you would like to work on
,brainstorm on your available sources. What is the
easiest and/or most convenient source you can reach
given the amount of time you have to work on your
paper?