Quine-McCluskey Method

B.M.K.Reddy
 Advantages and disadvantages of
the K-Map Method
 The advantages of the K-Map method are as follows:
 It is an excellent method for simplifying expression up to four
variables.

 For the logical simplification, it gives us a visual method.

 It is suitable for both SOP and POS forms of reduction.

 It is more suitable for classroom teachings on logic

simplification.
 Advantages and disadvantages of
the K-Map Method
 The disadvantages of the K-Map method are as follows:
 It is not suitable when the number of variables exceeds more
than four.

 For Computer reduction, it is not suitable.

 We have to take while entering the numbers in the cell-like 0, 1

and don't care terms.
Limitations of Karnaugh Map
 The limitations of Karnaugh Map are as follows:
 It is limited to six variable maps which means more than six
variable involving expressions are not reduced.

 These are useful for only simplifying Boolean expression which

is represented I standard form.

 It is so difficult to visualize for more than five variables using

K-Map.
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Tabular Method
 Compute all prime implicants
 Find a minimum expression for Boolean functions

 No visualization of prime implicants

 Can be programmed and implemented in a computer

 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Algorithm to obtain Prime Implicants:
1. List all minterms in the binary form

2. Arrange the minterms according to the number of 1s.

3. Compare each binary number with every term in the adjacent next higher category and
if they differ only by one position, put a check mark and copy the term in the next
column with ‘▁’ in the position that they differed.

4. Apply the same process described in step3 for the resultant column and continue
these cycles until a single pass through cycle yields no further elimination of
literals.

5. List all the Prime-Implicants

6. Select the minimum number of Prime-Implicants which must cover all the
minterms
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example
 Simplify the following Boolean function using Quine-
McCluskey method .
f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13)
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13)

1. List all minterms in the binary form

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Binary Binary Binary Binary

Minterms Minterms Minterms Minterms
Representation Representation Representation Representation

m0 0000
m2 0010
m3 0011
m6 0110
m7 0111
m8 1000
m10 1010
m12 1100
m13 1 1 0 1
Column1 Column2 Column3 Column4
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13)

2. Arrange the minterms according to the number of 1s.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Binary Binary Check Binary Check Binary Check

Minterms Minterms Minterms Minterms
Representation Representation Mark Representation Mark Representation Mark

m0 0000 m0 0000
m2 0010 m2 0010
m3 0011 m8 1000
m6 0110 m3 0011
m7 0111 m6 0110
m8 1000 m10 1010
m10 1 0 1 0 m12 1100
m12 1 1 0 0 m7 0111
m13 1 1 0 1 m13 1101
Column1 Column2 Column3 Column4
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13)

3. Compare each binary number with every term in the adjacent

next higher category and if they differ only by one position,
put a check mark and copy the term in the next column with
‘▁’ in the position that they differed.
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13) Step 3

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Binary Binary Check Binary Check Binary Check

Minterms Minterms Minterms Minterms
Representation Representation Mark Representation Mark Representation Mark

m0 0000 m0 0000 √ 0, 2 00▁0

m2 0010 m2 0010 √ 0, 8 ▁000
m3 0011 m8 1000 √ 2, 3 001▁
m6 0110 m3 0011 √ 2, 6 0▁10
m7 0111 m6 0110 √ 2, 10 ▁010
m8 1000 m10 1010 √ 8, 10 10▁0
m10 1 0 1 0 m12 1100 √ 8, 12 1▁00
m12 1 1 0 0 m7 0111 √ 3, 7 0▁11
m13 1 1 0 1 m13 1101 √ 6, 7 011▁
12, 13 110▁
Column1 Column2 Column3 Column4
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13)

4. Apply the same process described in step3 for the

resultant column and continue these cycles until a single
pass through cycle yields no further elimination of literals.
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13) Step 4

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Binary Binary Check Binary Check Binary Check

Minterms Minterms Minterms Minterms
Representation Representation Mark Representation Mark Representation Mark

m0 0000 m0 0000 √ 0, 2 00▁0 √ 0, 2, 8, 10 ▁0▁0

m2 0010 m2 0010 √ 0, 8 ▁000 √ 2, 3, 6, 7 0▁1▁
m3 0011 m8 1000 √ 2, 3 001▁ √
m6 0110 m3 0011 √ 2, 6 0▁10 √
m7 0111 m6 0110 √ 2, 10 ▁010 √
m8 1000 m10 1010 √ 8, 10 10▁0 √
m10 1 0 1 0 m12 1100 √ 8, 12 1▁00
m12 1 1 0 0 m7 0111 √ 3, 7 0▁11 √
m13 1 1 0 1 m13 1101 √ 6, 7 011▁ √
12, 13 110▁
Column1 Column2 Column3 Column4
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13)

5. List all the Prime-Implicants

(Which are not having check mark)

Minterms Binary Prime-Implicants

Representation

8, 12 1▁00 AC’D’
12, 13 110▁ ABC’
0, 2, 8, 10 ▁0▁0 B’D’
2, 3, 6, 7 0▁1▁ A’C
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13)

6. Select the minimum number of Prime-Implicants which

must cover all the minterms

m0 m2 m3 m6 m7 m8 m10 m12 m13

Prime Implicants
Col1 Col2 Col3 Col4 Col5 Col6 Col7 Col8 Col9

AC’D’ 8, 12 ⨀ ⨀

ABC’ 12, 13 ⨀ ⨀

B’D’ 0, 2, 8, 10 ⨀ ⨀ ⨀ ⨀

A’C 2, 3, 6, 7 ⨀ ⨀ ⨀ ⨀

From this chart we have to select the minimum number of

Prime Implicants.
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13)

6. Select the minimum number of Prime-Implicants which

must cover all the minterms

m0 m2 m3 m6 m7 m8 m10 m12 m13

Prime Implicants
Col1 Col2 Col3 Col4 Col5 Col6 Col7 Col8 Col9

AC’D’ 8, 12 ⨀ ⨀

ABC’ 12, 13 ⨀ ⨀

B’D’ 0, 2, 8, 10 √ ⨀ ⨀ ⨀ ⨀

A’C 2, 3, 6, 7 ⨀ ⨀ ⨀ ⨀

Col1 is single dot column so, select the prime implicant (B’D’)
corresponding to that dot by putting a check mark in front of it.
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13)

6. Select the minimum number of Prime-Implicants which

must cover all the minterms

m0 m2 m3 m6 m7 m8 m10 m12 m13

Prime Implicants
Col1 Col2 Col3 Col4 Col5 Col6 Col7 Col8 Col9

AC’D’ 8, 12 ⨀ ⨀

ABC’ 12, 13 ⨀ ⨀

B’D’ 0, 2, 8, 10 √ ⨀ ⨀ ⨀ ⨀

A’C 2, 3, 6, 7 √ ⨀ ⨀ ⨀ ⨀

Col3, 4, 5 are single dot columns so, select the prime implicant (A’C)
corresponding to those dots by putting a check mark in front of it.
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13)

6. Select the minimum number of Prime-Implicants which

must cover all the minterms

m0 m2 m3 m6 m7 m8 m10 m12 m13

Prime Implicants
Col1 Col2 Col3 Col4 Col5 Col6 Col7 Col8 Col9

AC’D’ 8, 12 ⨀ ⨀

ABC’ 12, 13 ⨀ ⨀

B’D’ 0, 2, 8, 10 √ ⨀ ⨀ ⨀ ⨀

A’C 2, 3, 6, 7 √ ⨀ ⨀ ⨀ ⨀

Col7 is single dot column its corresponding prime implicant (B’D’)

already selected so ignore it.
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13)

6. Select the minimum number of Prime-Implicants which

must cover all the minterms

m0 m2 m3 m6 m7 m8 m10 m12 m13

Prime Implicants
Col1 Col2 Col3 Col4 Col5 Col6 Col7 Col8 Col9

AC’D’ 8, 12 ⨀ ⨀

ABC’ 12, 13 √ ⨀ ⨀

B’D’ 0, 2, 8, 10 √ ⨀ ⨀ ⨀ ⨀

A’C 2, 3, 6, 7 √ ⨀ ⨀ ⨀ ⨀

Col9 is single dot column so, select the prime implicant (ABC’)
corresponding to that dot by putting a check mark in front of it.
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13)

Therefore the final expression with minimum prime

Implicants (Essential Prime Iimplicants) is

f(A,B,C,D) = B’D’ + A’C + ABC’

 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example
 Simplify the following Boolean function using Quine-
McCluskey method .

f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)

 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)
1. List all minterms in the binary form
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Binary Binary Binary Binary
Minterms Minterms Minterms Minterms
Representation Representation Representation Representation

m1 0001
m2 0010
m3 0011
m5 0101
m9 1001
m12 1100
m14 1110
m15 1111
dm4 0100
dm8 1000
dm11 1011
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)
2. Arrange the minterms according to the number of 1s.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Binary Binary Binary Binary
Minterms Minterms Minterms Minterms
Representation Representation Representation Representation

m1 0001 m1 0001
m2 0010 m2 0010
m3 0011 m4 0100
m5 0101 m8 1000
m9 1001 m3 0011
m12 1100 m5 0101
m14 1110 m9 1001
m15 1111 m12 1100
dm4 0100 m11 1011
dm8 1000 m14 1110
dm11 1011 m15 1111
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)

3. Compare each binary number with every term in the adjacent

next higher category and if they differ only by one position,
put a check mark and copy the term in the next column with
‘▁’ in the position that they differed.
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)
Step 3
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Binary Binary Binary Binary
Minterms Minterms Minterms Minterms
Representation Representation Representation Representation

m1 0001 m1 0001 √ 1, 3 00▁1

m2 0010 m2 0010 √ 1, 5 0▁01
m3 0011 m4 0100 √ 1, 9 ▁001
m5 0101 m8 1000 √ 2, 3 001▁
m9 1001 m3 0011 √ 4, 5 010▁
m12 1100 m5 0101 √ 4, 12 ▁100
m14 1110 m9 1001 √ 8, 9 100▁
m15 1111 m12 1100 √ 8, 12 1▁00
dm4 0100 m11 1011 √ 3, 11 ▁011
dm8 1000 m14 1110 √ 9, 11 10▁1
dm11 1011 m15 1111 √ 12, 14 11▁0
11, 15 1▁11
14, 15 111▁
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)

4. Apply the same process described in step3 for the

resultant column and continue these cycles until a single
pass through cycle yields no further elimination of literals.
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)
Step 4
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Binary Binary Binary Binary
Minterms Minterms Minterms Minterms
Representation Representation Representation Representation

m1 0001 m1 0001 √ 1, 3 00▁1 √ 1, 3, 9, 11 ▁0▁1

m2 0010 m2 0010 √ 1, 5 0▁01
m3 0011 m4 0100 √ 1, 9 ▁001 √
m5 0101 m8 1000 √ 2, 3 001▁
m9 1001 m3 0011 √ 4, 5 010▁
m12 1100 m5 0101 √ 4, 12 ▁100
m14 1110 m9 1001 √ 8, 9 100▁
m15 1111 m12 1100 √ 8, 12 1▁00
dm4 0100 m11 1011 √ 3, 11 ▁011 √
dm8 1000 m14 1110 √ 9, 11 10▁1 √
dm11 1011 m15 1111 √ 12, 14 11▁0
11, 15 1▁11
14, 15 111▁
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)

5. List all the Prime-Implicants Which are not having check mark)
Minterms Binary Representation Prime-Implicants

1, 5 0▁01 A’C’D
2, 3 001▁ A’B’C
4, 5 010▁ A’BC’
4, 12 ▁100 BC’D’
8, 9 100▁ AB’C’
8, 12 1▁00 AC’D’
12, 14 11▁0 ABD’
11, 15 1▁11 ACD
14, 15 111▁ ABC
1, 3, 9, 11 ▁0▁1 B’D
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)

6. Select the minimum number of Prime-Implicants which

must cover all the minterms
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)

Prime m1 m2 m3 m4 m5 m8 m9 m11 m12 m14 m15

Implicants Col1 Col2 Col3 Col4 Col5 Col6 Col7 Col8 Col9 Col10 Col11

A’C’D 1, 5 ⨀ ⨀

A’B’C 2, 3 ⨀ ⨀

A’BC’ 4, 5 ⋅ ⋅
BC’D’ 4, 12 ⋅ ⋅
AB’C’ 8, 9 ⋅ ⋅
AC’D’ 8, 12 ⋅ ⋅
ABD’ 12, 14 ⨀ ⨀

ACD 11, 15 ⋅ ⋅
ABC 14, 15 ⨀ ⨀

B’D 1, 3, 9, 11
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)

6. 1. To select the minimum number of Prime-Implicants

choose single dot columns first.

In our example only Col2 has single dot. So, select the
prime implicant (A’B’C) corresponding to that dot by
putting a check mark in front of it.
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)

Prime m1 m2 m3 m4 m5 m8 m9 m11 m12 m14 m15

Implicants Col1 Col2 Col3 Col4 Col5 Col6 Col7 Col8 Col9 Col10 Col11

A’C’D 1, 5 ⨀ ⨀

⨀ ⨀
A’B’C 2, 3 √
A’BC’ 4, 5 ⋅ ⋅
BC’D’ 4, 12 ⋅ ⋅
AB’C’ 8, 9 ⋅ ⋅
AC’D’ 8, 12 ⋅ ⋅
ABD’ 12, 14 ⨀ ⨀

ACD 11, 15 ⋅ ⋅
ABC 14, 15 ⨀ ⨀

B’D 1, 3, 9, 11
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)

6. 2. To select the minimum number of Prime-Implicants

choose single closed dot with don’t cares

In our example Col1 has single dot with don’t care. So,
select the prime implicant (A’C’D) corresponding to that
dot by putting a check mark in front of it.
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)

Prime m1 m2 m3 m4 m5 m8 m9 m11 m12 m14 m15

Implicants Col1 Col2 Col3 Col4 Col5 Col6 Col7 Col8 Col9 Col10 Col11

A’C’D 1, 5 √ ⨀ ⨀

⨀ ⨀
A’B’C 2, 3 √
A’BC’ 4, 5 ⋅ ⋅
BC’D’ 4, 12 ⋅ ⋅
AB’C’ 8, 9 ⋅ ⋅
AC’D’ 8, 12 ⋅ ⋅
ABD’ 12, 14 ⨀ ⨀

ACD 11, 15 ⋅ ⋅
ABC 14, 15 ⨀ ⨀

B’D 1, 3, 9, 11
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)

6. 3. To select the minimum number of Prime-Implicants

choose single closed dot with don’t cares

In our example Col3 has single dot with don’t care. But its
corresponding prime implicant already selected.
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)

6. 4. To select the minimum number of Prime-Implicants

choose single closed dot with don’t cares

In our example Col9 has single dot with don’t care. So,
select the prime implicant (ABD’) corresponding to that
dot by putting a check mark in front of it.
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)

Prime m1 m2 m3 m4 m5 m8 m9 m11 m12 m14 m15

Implicants Col1 Col2 Col3 Col4 Col5 Col6 Col7 Col8 Col9 Col10 Col11

A’C’D 1, 5 √ ⨀ ⨀

⨀ ⨀
A’B’C 2, 3 √
A’BC’ 4, 5 ⋅ ⋅
BC’D’ 4, 12 ⋅ ⋅
AB’C’ 8, 9 ⋅ ⋅
AC’D’ 8, 12 ⋅ ⋅
ABD’ 12, 14 √ ⨀ ⨀

ACD 11, 15 ⋅ ⋅
ABC 14, 15 ⨀ ⨀

B’D 1, 3, 9, 11
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)

6. 5. To select the minimum number of Prime-Implicants

choose single closed dot with don’t cares

In our example Col11 has single dot with don’t care. So,
select the prime implicant (ABC) corresponding to that
dot by putting a check mark in front of it.
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)

Prime m1 m2 m3 m4 m5 m8 m9 m11 m12 m14 m15

Implicants Col1 Col2 Col3 Col4 Col5 Col6 Col7 Col8 Col9 Col10 Col11

A’C’D 1, 5 √ ⨀ ⨀

⨀ ⨀
A’B’C 2, 3 √
A’BC’ 4, 5 ⋅ ⋅
BC’D’ 4, 12 ⋅ ⋅
AB’C’ 8, 9 ⋅ ⋅
AC’D’ 8, 12 ⋅ ⋅
ABD’ 12, 14 √ ⨀ ⨀

ACD 11, 15 ⋅ ⋅
ABC 14, 15 √ ⨀ ⨀

B’D 1, 3, 9, 11
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)

6. 6. To select the minimum number of Prime-Implicants

consider the prime implicant which has more minterms.

In our example, the prime implicant (B’D) has more

number of minterms (1, 3, 9, 11). That’s why it is
considering as essential prime implicant.
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)

Prime m1 m2 m3 m4 m5 m8 m9 m11 m12 m14 m15

Implicants Col1 Col2 Col3 Col4 Col5 Col6 Col7 Col8 Col9 Col10 Col11

A’C’D 1, 5 √ ⨀ ⨀

⨀ ⨀
A’B’C 2, 3 √
A’BC’ 4, 5 ⋅ ⋅
BC’D’ 4, 12 ⋅ ⋅
AB’C’ 8, 9 ⋅ ⋅
AC’D’ 8, 12 ⋅ ⋅
ABD’ 12, 14 √ ⨀ ⨀

ACD 11, 15 ⋅ ⋅
ABC 14, 15 √ ⨀ ⨀

B’D 1, 3, 9, 11
√ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Example f(A,B,C,D) = ∑m(1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d(4, 8 , 11)

Therefore the final expression with minimum prime

Implicants (Essential Prime Iimplicants) is

f(A,B,C,D) = A’C’D + A’B’C + ABD’ + ABC + B’D

 Quine-McCluskey Algorithm
 Examples – Home Work
F(W,X,Y,Z) = ∑m(0, 1, 5, 7, 8, 10, 13) + ∑ф (2, 9, 14, 15)

F(A,B,C,D,E) = ∑m(0, 2, 5, 8, 14, 16, 18, 25, 26, 30) + ∑d(10, 12, 24)

F(x1,x2,x3,x4) = ∑m(0, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15)

F(x1,x2,x3,x4 ,x5) = ∑m(0, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 14, 17, 18, 21, 29, 31)+∑d(11, 20, 22)

F(a, b, c, d) = ∑m(5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15)+∑d(0)

F(A, B, C, D, E) = ∑m(0, 1, 2, 8, 9, 15, 17, 21, 24, 25, 27, 31)