Turbo machinery

Chapter- one
Introduction
 Out Line

Definition of turbo machines

Classification of Turbomachinery

Application

 General parts of turbomachines

 Definitions

What is “Turbomachinery”?
Turbo is latin origin which means spins or whirls around.

Class of fluid machines having, as its characteristics, the transfer of energy between


a continuous stream of fluid and an element rotating about a fixed axis.

As Example:-

-Fan(ventilation fans to the factory and aero fans)

-Pumps(Hydraulics Pumps)

-Compressors

-Turbines
 What is “Fluid Machinery?”
 All machines that work on/by Fluid

 Work-(Transfer of fluid energy (Kinetic or Thermal) in to

mechanical or the vice versa

-Compress 

-Pump

-Expand/Turbine/
 Fluid -Liquid Fluids(water, oil, waste, pellets…)

- Gaseous (All gases, air, steam, …)

Brief Historical Review of Fluid Machines
Classification of Fluid machines
Rotodynamic
Energy transfer between rotating part (rotor) and fluid by momentum.
-Angular Momentum->Swirl->turbo
-Continuous Fluid Flow
-Rotating Machine
-No closed volume
Volumetric
Energy transfer between oscillatory part and fluid by volumetric
displacement
-Pressure
-Intermittent motion
-Temporarily closed volume
 1.3 Application
Power Generation
Source of Energy for Transportation
 Aero engines: -Turbofan
-Turboprop
-Civil Airplane Engines
-Military Airplane Engines
Ship Engines
In some Cases it is used in Trains
1. Power Generation
 More than 90% of the World Energy is generated by Turbomachines.

 A typical large single-cycle gas turbine may produce 100 to 300

megawatts of power and have (35–40)% of thermal efficiency. (Eg.

Alestom GT 24/GT 26) [Damin Vogt, KTH, 2008]
The Largest Gas Turbine for power Generation(Simens)
Size: 5m height ,
13m length,
444 tons weight
Output: 340 MW/(+190MW) Germany
2. Aero Engines (difference?)
Civil Airplane Engine Military Airplane
Engine
(difference?)
Turbofan Aero Engines Turboprop Aero Engines
Prop-fan:- New Technology Hybriding Turbofan and
Turboprop

[www.conservativecave.c24om]
 Parts of Turbomachinery (Gas Turbine)
Gas turbine has three main parts
 Compression Stage (Compressors): Serious of blade rows in rotor

stator arrangement usually more stages that Turbine,

 Expansion Stage (Turbines): Serious of blade rows in rotor stator

arrangement usually lesser stages than that of compressors,

 Fuel Burning Stage (Combustion Chamber )

Simple Sketch and T-S Diagram

 
Source: KTH, Department of technology
Combustion Chamber 
 It is a place where fuel and the compressed air from Compressor
combined and combusted.
 Now days there are many types of CC systems that use different
fuels (Catalytic, Natural Gas, Aircraft oils Biomass(gasified)
 Combustion of Fuels
-Conventional Burning (Emission)
-Catalytic Combustion (Low Emission)
Compressors
 Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a

fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are
compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids
are relatively incompressible, so the main action of a pump is to
pressurize and transport liquids. [wikipidea.com]
 In gas turbines; compressors are made of serious of blades row which

are arranged in such a way that the first row is rotor and the next is
stator.
http://e n.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas turbine
Turbine
 Turbine is a rotary generator that extracts energy from a fluid or air flow

and converts it into useful work.

 The simplest turbines have one moving part, a rotor assembly, in
which a shaft or drum attached with blades. Moving fluid acts on the blades,
or the blades react to the flow, so that they move and impart rotational
energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and water
wheels [wikipidea.com].
 In gas turbines; turbines are made of serious of blades row which are
arranged in such a way that the first row is stator and the next is rotor in the
direction of the fluid flow.
 Turbines of any kinds (especially) can be divided in to two Reaction

Turbines and Action Turbines.

Impulse (Action) Turbines:

 These turbines change the direction of flow of a high velocity fluid or

gas jet. The resulting impulse spins the turbine and leaves the fluid
flow with diminished kinetic energy. There is no pressure change of
the fluid or gas in the turbine rotor blades (the moving blades), as in
the case of a steam or gas turbine, all the pressure drop takes place in
the stationary blades (the nozzles).
Reaction Turbines:
 These turbines develop torque by reacting to the gas or fluid's pressure or mass.

The pressure of the gas or fluid changes as it passes through the turbine
rotor blades. A pressure casement is needed to contain the working fluid as
it acts on the turbine stage(s) or the turbine must be fully immersed in the fluid
flow (such as with wind turbines). The casing contains and directs the working
fluid and, for water turbines, maintains the suction imparted by the draft tube.
Francis turbines and most steam turbines use this concept. For
compressible working fluids, multiple turbine stages are usually used to
harness the expanding gas efficiently. Newton's third law describes the
transfer of energy for reaction turbines [www.wikipidia.com].
 Turbines Blades
Compressors Blades
• The number of stages is
• The Number of stages is relatively high,
relatively low,
• The Blades start with longer blades
• The blades start with shorter blades and
and ends with short blades,
ends with longer blades,
• The blades are thin,
• The blades are thick,
• The blades are less curved
• The blades are highly curved,
Why?
Why?
1.4 Thermodynamics, Fluid mechanics and
Efficiencies
Out Line
 Introduction;
 Continuity Equation;
The first law of thermodynamics and (the steady flow
energy equation)/Conservation of Energy;
The momentum equation; 
Entropy (The second law of thermodynamics);
Gas Laws
Efficiencies in Turbo Machines,
Drawing of h-s diagrams, and velocity Triangles of
Turbines and Compressors.
 Introduction
 A turbo machine is a device in which energy transfer occurs between a

flowing fluid and a rotating element due to dynamic action, and results
in a change in pressure and momentum of the fluid.
 The general Schematic Representations of turbo machines fluid flow
1-> Inlet
3 ->Outlet
But, turbo machine consists of one or several stages flow of
fluid;
1-> Stator Inlet
2-> Rotor Inlet
3 ->Rotor Outlet

The Velocities diagram of the

flow fluid
 Continuity Equation
In the steady flow through the control volume, the mass flow rate m remains constant….

(Steady Flow??)

Continuity Equation
If A1 and A2 are the flow areas at stations 1 and 2 along a passage respectively,

then
 
 Conservation of Energy

 The above Figure shows a control volume representing a turbo

machine, through which fluid passes at a steady rate of mass m’ ,

entering at position 1 and leaving at position 2.
 Energy is transferred from the fluid to the blades of the turbo

machine, positive work being done (via the shaft) at the rate Wx’. In
the general case positive heat transfer takes place at the rate Q’ ,
from the surroundings to the control volume.
 Thus, with this sign convention the steady flow energy equation is
Here there are terms of specific enthalpy, kinetic energy
term, and potential energy per unit mass.
For compressible fluids the term of potential energy is
negligible
 For incompressible fluids the term of specific enthalpy is
negligible.
So it is possible to define stagnation (total) enthalpy by;
What are Total Pressure, Total Enthalpy, and Total
Temperature?
the above equation for compressible fluid can be written
as;

For adiabatic cases the value of Q is zero.

Note
 Momentum Equation

 One of the most fundamental and valuable principles in mechanics is Newton’s second

law of motion. The momentum equation relates the sum of the external forces acting on a
fluid element to its acceleration, or to the rate of change of momentum in the direction of
the resultant external force.

 In the study of turbo machines many applications of the momentum equation can be

found, e.g. the force exerted upon a blade in a compressor or turbine cascade caused by
the deflection or acceleration of fluid passing the blades.

 Considering a system of mass m, the sum of all the body and surface forces acting on m’

along some arbitrary direction x is equal to the time rate of change of the total x
momentum of the system, i.e.
 For a control volume where fluid enters steadily at a uniform

velocity Cx1 and leaves steadily with a uniform velocity Cx2, then

Moment of Momentum
 For a system of mass m, the vector sum of the moments of all

external forces acting on the system about some arbitrary axis,

fixed in space is equal to the time rate of change of angular
momentum of the system about that axis, i.e.
 Figure: Control volume for a generalized turbo machine

 for a control volume the law of moment of momentum can be

obtained from the above figure as shows the control volume enclosing
the rotor of a generalized turbo machine.
 Swirling fluid enters the control volume at radius r1 with tangential

velocity Cθ1 and leaves at radius r2 with tangential velocity Cθ2. For
one-dimensional steady flow;

which states that, the sum of the moments of the external forces acting
on fluid temporarily occupying the control volume is equal to the
net time rate of flux of angular momentum from the control volume.
Euler Turbine and Pump Equation
At this point the conservation of energy and the
conservation of moment of momentum shall be combined. The
mechanical work per unit time equals the product of moment and
rotational speed;

Thus the conservation of energy can be related to the conservation

of momentum as follows;

Finally gives Euler Equation;

 Reformulating Euler’s turbine equation leads to a fundamental aspect

of turbo machine thermodynamics referred to as Rothalpy

 The Rothalpy is a function that remains constant throughout a rotating

machine.
 Note: in a non-rotating machine the total enthalpy is  constant (non-
rotating in the above equation)
 Entropy (Second Law of Thermodynamics)

 An important and useful corollary of the second law of

thermodynamics, known as the Inequality of Clausius, states that for a
system passing through a cycle involving heat exchanges,

 where dQ is an element of heat transferred to the system at an absolute

temperature T. If all the processes in the cycle are reversible then dQR
and the equality holds true, i.e.
 The property called entropy, for a finite change of state, is then defined
as;

 For an incremental change of state;

 In the absence of motion, gravity and other effects the first law of
thermodynamics becomes
 Gas Laws
 For perfect gases with constant specific heat (Cp) the enthalpies
are only a function of temperature as follows;

 Furthermore the gas law for a perfect gas relates

temperatures and pressures for an isentropic process as given below;

 where is non-dimensional and stands for the ratio of specific heats

to specific volume;
 Efficiencies of Turbo machines

Efficiency of Turbines
 The efficiency of expansion processes, the overall efficiency η, is a performance factor

of considerable interest to both designer and user of the turbine.

Efficiency of Compressors
 The efficiency of compression processes, the overall efficiency η, is a performance

factor of considerable interest to both designer and user of compressors.

 The symbol for efficiencies is the Greek letter η (say “eta”).

 For adiabatic processes the efficiency lies between 0 and 1.

Common efficiencies in turbo machines;

a) Isentropic Efficiency
 As the name itself indicates; it is ideal way of calculating efficiency of the
processes which is done by assuming the process is adiabatic. In case of an
isentropic efficiency the ideal process is represented by an isentropic
change of ideal process is represented by an isentropic change of state from
start to end pressure, i.e. the same pressures as for the real process. This is
illustrated in the following figure for an expansion process by means of an
enthalpy entropy diagram (h-s diagram).
1) Isentropic efficiency in Turbine
 In the above depicted process the changes in total energy are referred

to, which is expressed by indexing the efficiency by “tt”, i.e. “ total-

to-total”. Recall that the total energy is defined as follows:

 The total-to-total isentropic efficiency (expansion) is thus given

by;
 In certain cases the kinetic energy that is contained in the fluid (i.e. the

amount of energy that is due to the motion) can not be used at the
end of a process. An example for such a process is the last stage
of energy producing turbine where the kinetic energy in the exhaust
gases is not contributing to the total energy produced. In such case a
so-called total-to- static isentropic efficiency is used, identified by
indexing the efficiency by “ts”, i.e. “total-to-static”. An expansion
line is drawn in the following figure. Note that it is necessary to
include total and static states in this case.
 The total-to-static isentropic efficiency (expansion) is thus given by;
 By reformulating the above expression a relation between total-to-

total and total-to-static efficiency can be obtained as follows ;

 This relation shows that for values of C2> 0 of the total-to- static

efficiency is always smaller than the total-to-total efficiency.

2) Isentropic efficiency in Compressor

 Total-to-total isentropic efficiency (Compression)

Note that
 For adiabatic real processes the entropy must always increase during the

change of state;
 Due to this increase in entropy the real change in energy is smaller than the ideal

during expansion. In other words, you get out less energy from the real process
than you could have from an ideal one;
 For the compression process the increase in entropy signifies that you need to

put in more energy to compress a fluid than you would have in an ideal process.
 Therefore the efficiency is always smaller or equal to unity

 The only way to reduce entropy would be to cool a process. However in

such case we do no longer look into adiabatic processes.

Relating Isentropic Equations with Gas States;
 Next the focus is drawn towards the calculation of efficiencies
and states. For perfect gases with constant specific heat the
enthalpies are only a function of temperature as follows;
 From the above discussion of gas laws, it is shown that,
 By expressing by T02s

 The isentropic enthalpy difference can be written as;

 To obtain the real change in enthalpy the efficiency must be

accounted for as shown above yielding;
 Note that the above equation represents a rather common problem;

very often the inlet state to a gas turbine is given by (P,T), e.g. from
conditions after a combustion chamber.
 Furthermore the exit pressure of the turbine might be set.

 As approximation it can also be assumed that Po2s=Po2.

 By knowing (or assuming) the efficiency the real change in enthalpy

can thus easily be calculated.

Polytrophic Efficiency
 As for the isentropic efficiency the polytrophic efficiency relates a real process to an ideal

one. The main difference however is that the ideal process in this case is not taken as the
single isentropic change of state but rather the flow work, which is defined as follows;

 Thus the definition of polytrophic efficiency is given by

 The flow work is not easily visualized in the h-s diagram. It can be understood as infinite

number of infinitesimal small isentropic changes of state that follow the real expansion line
like a saw tooth curve, see the figure below. This consideration also leads to the polytrophic
efficiency sometimes being referred to as “small-stage efficiency”.
 The flow work is not easily visualized in the h-s diagram.
 It can be understood as infinite number of infinitesimal small
isentropic changes of state that follow the real expansion line like
a saw tooth curve, see the following figure.
 This consideration also leads to the polytrophic efficiency
sometimes being referred to as “small-stage efficiency”.
 Note that the sum of all these infinitesimal isentropic changes is

greater than the single isentropic change from 1 to 2s.

 This is due to the fact that the isobars are spread apart with
increasing entropy, which in turn is due to the slope of the isobars
being proportional to the temperature as follows;
 By knowing the polytrophic efficiency, it is possible to apply the
gas law as introduced further above to polytrophic changes by
reformulating

 The coefficient “n” is thereby referred to as polytrophic coefficient

and is related to the isentropic exponent as follows;
 ->Expansion process;

 ->Compression process;
By applying directly the concept from total enthalpy
change;

 The presence of the polytrophic efficiency in the exponent

reflecting the polytrophic coefficient. By substituting these
expressions into the above equations;
 Relationship between isentropic (overall) efficiency, pressure ratio
and small stage (polytrophic) efficiency for a compressor
 Turbine isentropic efficiency against pressure ratio for various
polytrophic efficiencies;
h-s diagram for Axial Compressors and
Turbines
Remarks :
 Enthalpy drop in stator equal to enthalpy drop in rotor;

 therefore P1>P2>P3.

 Static conditions at stator outlet equal to rotor inlet;

 Polytrophic expansion line connects static conditions;

 Total enthalpy constant in stator, Rothalpy constant in rotor

 Enthalpy drop in rotor equal to zero; therefore P3≈P2(in reality a small

pressure drop is necessary)

 Static conditions at stator outlet equal to rotor inlet

 Polytrophic expansion line connects static conditions

 Total enthalpy constant in stator, Rothalpy constant in rotor.

 Enthalpy increase in rotor equal to enthalpy increase in stator; therefore

P1<P2<P3
 Static conditions at stator outlet equal to rotor inlet.

 Polytrophic expansion line connects static conditions

 Total enthalpy constant in stator, Rothalpy constant in rotor.

 1.5 Dimensional analysis
 Dimensional analysis is a method of reducing the number and complexity of

experimental variables which affect a given physical phenomenon, by using a sort

of compacting technique.
 If a phenomenon depends upon n dimensional variables, dimensional analysis

will reduce the problem to only k dimensionless variables, where the reduction n-
k=1, 2, 3, or 4, depending upon the problem complexity.
 The variables involved in engineering are expressed in terms of a limited number

of basic dimensions.
 For most engineering problems, the basic dimensions are:

1. SI system: mass, length, temperature and time.

2. English system: mass, length, temperature, time and force.

 BUCKINGHAM PI THEOREM
 If a physical process satisfies the principle of dimensional homogeneity

and involves n dimensional variables, it can be reduced to a relation

between only k dimensionless variables or ∏’s.
 The reduction j = n- k equals the maximum number of variables which

do not form a ∏ among themselves and is always less than or equal to

the number of dimensions describing the variables.
Dimensions of Fluid Mechanics Properties
 There are in general six steps involved when converting
dimensional relations in to dimensionless parameters:
1. List and count the n variables involved in the problem.

2. List the dimensions of each variable according to {MLTQ} or {FLTQ}.

3. Find the reduction j. Initially guess j equal to the number of different

dimensions present, and look for j variables which do not form a pi
product. If no luck, reduce j by 1 and look again. With practice, you will
find j rapidly.

4. Select j scaling parameters which do not form a pi product. Make sure

that they have some generality if possible, because they will then appear
in every one of your pi groups.
5. Add one additional variable to your j repeating variables, and form
a power product.

6. Write the final dimensionless function, and check your work to make sure
all pi groups are dimensionless.

Example

The pressure difference ∆p across an explosion or blast wave is a function

of the distance r from the blast center, time t, speed of sound a of the
medium, and total energy E in the blast. Rewrite this relation in
dimensionless form.
Solution

Step 1: Write the function and count variables (find n).

∆p=f( r, t, a, E) n=5

Step 2: List dimensions of each variable

Step 3: Find j.

There are three basic dimensions (MLT) and j is less or equal to 3. The variables r, t
and E do not form pi group and j=3. Then k=n-j=5-3=2. There are 2 independent pi
groups for this problem.

Step 4: select j repeating variables.

 The variables r, t and E can be used as repeating variables since they

do not form pi groups among themselves

Step 5: find the pi groups.

The first pi group can be obtained by adding the variable a with power of
1 to the repeating variables selected in step 4.
 Examples
1. A pump discharges liquid at the rate of Q against a head of
H. If specific weight of the liquid is w, find the expression
for the pumping power.
2. Prove that the drag force F on a partially submerged body is
given by:

3. Consider a radial inward flow machine, the radial and

tangential velocity components are 340 m/s and 50 m/s,
respectively, and the inlet and the outlet radii are 14 cm and
7 cm, respectively. Find the torque per unit mass flow rate.
 Solutions
Example 1:
Example 2:
Example 3: