Power Electronics

Lecture Outline

2
 Power Diode
• Power semiconductor diode
is the “power level” counter
part of the “low power signal
diodes”.

• The symbol of the Power

diode is same as signal level
diode. However, the
construction and packaging is
different.

3
 Power Diode
• Power dides are required to carry up to several KA of current
under forward bias condition and block up to several KV
under reverse biased condition.

• Large blocking voltage requires wide depletion layer.

• This requirement will be satisfied in a lightly doped p-n

junction diode of sufficient width to accommodate the
required depletion layer.

• Such a construction, however, will result in a device with high

resistively in the forward direction.

• If forward resistance (and hence power loss) is reduced by

increasing the doping level, reverse break down voltage will
reduce. 4
 Power Diode
• These extreme requirements call for important structural changes
in a power diode which significantly affect their operating
characteristics.
• This apparent contradiction in the requirements of a power diode is
resolved by introducing a lightly doped “drift layer” of required
thickness between two heavily doped p and n layers.

5
 Switching Characteristics of Power Diodes
• Power Diodes take finite time to make transition from reverse bias
to forward bias condition (switch ON) and vice versa (switch OFF).

• Behavior of the diode current and voltage during these switching

periods are important due to the following reasons.

– Severe over voltage / over current may be caused by a diode switching

at different points in the circuit using the diode.

– Voltage and current exist simultaneously during switching operation of

a diode. Therefore, every switching of the diode is associated with
some energy loss. At high switching frequency this may contribute
significantly to the overall power loss in the diode.

6
 Turn On Characteristics
• Diodes are often used in
circuits with di/dt limiting
inductors.

• The rate of rise of the

forward current through
the diode during Turn ON
has significant effect on
the forward voltage drop
characteristics.

7
 Turn On Characteristics
• It is observed that the forward
diode voltage during turn ON
may transiently reach a
significantly higher value VFr
compared to the steady state
voltage drop at the steady
current IF. VF ~ 1V when diodes
fully ON

• Forward recovery time, tFR is

the time required for the diode
voltage to drop to a particular
value after the forward current
starts to flow. Unlike normal diodes, VFr can be
much bigger than VF ~ 1V during
8
transient from OFF->ON
 Turn Off Characteristics
• The diode current does not Unlike normal diodes, IRR big enough
comparable to IF during transient
stop at zero, instead it grows period => can cause damage

in the negative direction to Irr

called “peak reverse recovery
current” which can be
comparable to IF.

• Voltage drop across the diode

does not change appreciably
from its steady state value till
the diode current reaches
reverse recovery level.
Unlike normal diodes, VRR can be
larger than PIV of normal diodes 9
during transient => cause damage
 Turn Off Characteristics
• The reverse recovery
characteristics shown is
typical of a particular type of
diodes called “normal
recovery” or “soft recovery”
diode.
• The total recovery time (trr)
in this case is a few tens of
microseconds.

10
 Turn Off Characteristics
• This is acceptable for line frequency rectifiers (these diodes
are also called rectifier grade diodes).

• High frequency circuits (e.g PWM inverters) demand faster

diode recovery.

11
 Types of Diodes
• Depending on the application requirement various types
of diodes are available.

– Schottky Diode

– Fast Recovery Diode

– Line Frequency Diode

 Types of Diodes

– Schottky Diode

– These diodes are used where a low forward voltage drop

(typically 0.3 v) is needed.
– These diodes are limited in their blocking voltage
capabilities to 50v- 100v.
 Types of Diodes

– Fast Recovery Diode

– These diodes are designed to be used in high frequency

circuits in combination with controllable switches where a
small reverse recovery time is needed.

– At power levels of several hundred volts and several

hundred amperes such diodes have trr rating of less than
few microseconds.
 Types of Diodes

– Line Frequency Diode

– The on state of these diodes is designed to be as low as

possible.

– As a consequence they have large trr, which are acceptable

for line frequency applications.

Comparison between different types of Diodes

General Purpose Fast Recovery Schottky Diodes

Diodes Diodes
Up to 6000V & Up to 6000V and Up to 100V and
3500A 1100A 300A
Reverse recovery Reverse recovery Reverse recovery
time – High time – Low time – Extremely
low.

trr  25 s trr  0.1 s to 5 s trr  a few nano sec

16
 Comparison between different types
of Diodes

General Purpose Fast Recovery Schottky Diodes

Diodes Diodes
Turn off time – Turn off time – Low Turn off time –
High Extremely low
Switching Switching Switching
frequency – Low frequency – High frequency – Very
(Max 1KHz) (Max 20KHz) high.
(Max 30KHz)
VF  0.7 to 1.2V VF  0.8 to 1.5V VF  0.4 to 0.6V
17
Diode Circuits

18
Lecture Outline

19
 Snubbers

• In general, snubbers are used for:

– turn-on: to minimise large overcurrents through the device at turn-on

– turn-off: to minimise large overvoltages across the device during turn-off.

– Stress reduction: to shape the device switching waveform such that the
voltage and current associated with the device are not high
simultaneously.

• Switches and diodes requires snubbers. However, new generation of IGBT,

MOSFET and IGCT do not require it.

20
 Snubber Circuits for Diode
• Snubber circuits are essential for diodes used in switching
circuits.
• It can save a diode from overvoltage spikes, which may arise
during the reverse recovery process.

• A very common snubber circuit

for a power diode consists of a
capacitor and a resistor
connected in parallel with the
diode as shown in following
figure.

21
 Snubber Circuits for Diode
• When the reverse recovery current decreases, the capacitor by virtue of its
property will try to hold the voltage across it, which, approximately, is the
voltage across the diode.
• The resistor on the other hand will help to dissipate some of the energy
stored in the inductor, which forms the IRR loop. The dv/dt across a diode
can be calculated as:

22
 Snubber Circuits for Diode

• Usually the dv/dt rating of a diode is given in the manufacturers

datasheet. Knowing dv/dt and the RS , one can choose the value
of the snubber capacitor CS.

• The RS can be calculated from the diode reverse recovery

current:

• The designed dv/dt value must always be equal or lower than the
dv/dt value found from the datasheet.

23
 Diode With RC Load
• Following Figure shows a diode with RC load.
• When switch S1 is closed at t=0, the charging current that flows
through the capacitor and voltage drop across it are found from

24
 Diode With RL Load
• Following Figure shows a diode with RL load.
• When switch S1 is closed at t=0, the current through the
inductor is increased

25
 Diode With RL Load
• The waveform shows when t>>T, the voltage across
inductor tends to be zero and its current reaches maximum
value.

• If an attempt is made to
open S1 energy stored in
inductor (=0.5Li2) will be
transformed into high
reverse voltage across
diode and switch.

26
 Example#3
• A diode circuit is shown in figure, with R=44Ω and C=0.1μF. The
capacitor has an initial voltage Vo=220 v. If S1 is closed at t=0
determine:

– Peak Diode Current

– Energy Dissipated in resistor

– Capacitor voltage at t=2 μs

27
 Example#3
• A diode circuit is shown in figure, with R=44Ω and C=0.1μF. The
capacitor has an initial voltage Vo=220 v. If S1 is closed at t=0
determine:

– Peak Diode Current

– Energy Dissipated in Resistor

28
 Example#3
• A diode circuit is shown in figure, with R=44Ω and C=0.1μF. The
capacitor has an initial voltage Vo=220 v. If S1 is closed at t=0
determine:

– Capacitor voltage at t=2 μs

29
 Freewheeling Diode
• If switch S1 is closed a current is established through the load,
and then, if the switch is open, a path must be provided for
the current in the inductive load.

• This is normally done by

connecting a diode Dm, called a
freewheeling diode.

30
 Freewheeling Diode
• The circuit operation is divided into two modes.
• Mode 1 begins when the switched is closed.
• During this mode the current voltage relation is

31
 Freewheeling Diode
• Mode 2 starts when the S1 is opened and the load current
starts to flow through Dm.

32
 Freewheeling Diode
• The waveform of the entire operation is given below.

S1 Closed S1 Open
33
 Thyristor Types
Some of the more major types:
• Shockley diode
• SCR
– Phase-control Thyristors
– Fast-switching Thyristors
• Triac, Diac
• Silicon controlled switch (SCS)
• Reverse-conducting Thyristors (RCTs).
• Static induction Thyristors (SITHs).
• Bidirectional Phase-controlled thyristors (BCT)
• LASCR (Light activated SCR)
• Gate Turn-off thyristors (GTO)
• FET-controlled thyristors(FET-CTH)
• MOS Turn-off thyristors (MTO)
• MOS-controlled thyristors (MCT)
• MTO - MOS Turn Off Thyristor
• ETO - Emitter Turn Off Thyristor
• GATT - Gate Assisted Turn Off Thyristor
 Four Semiconductor Layer (pnpn)
- Thyristors -
• Four semiconductor layer (pnpn) devices with a control
mechanism are known as thyristors.
• This include Shockley diode, silicon controlled rectifier
(SCR), diac, triac, silicon controlled switch (SCS), …
• They act as open circuits capable of withstanding a certain
rated voltage until they trigger.
• When trigger, they turn on and become low resistance
current path and remains so, even after the trigger is
removed, and will go off if the current is reduced to a
certain level or until they are trigger off.
• Usage: mainly used in industrial applications where power
control and switching are needed such as lamp dimmers,
motor speed control, ignition systems and charging
 Thyristor/ SCR
• SCR is a three terminal, four layers solid state
semiconductor device, each layer consisting of
alternately N-type or P-type material, i.e; P-N-
P-N,

• It can handle high currents and high voltages,

with better switching speed and improved
breakdown voltage .
A K

37
 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
• SCR is a switching device for high voltage and current operations.
• SCR is most popular of thyristor family due to its
Fast switching action, small size and high voltage and current ratings.
• It’s another four layer pnpn device with three terminals,
anode, cathode, and gate.
• SCR is turned on by applying +ve gate signal when anode
is +ve with repect to cathode.
• In on state it’s act as short between A and K and small
forward resistance.
• SCR is turned off by interrupting anode current.
• In off state, it act ideally as an open circuit between A and K,
and high resistance.
• Some application are motor control, time delay, heater control,
relay control and phase control.
Silicon-Controlled Rectifier

SCR Equivalent Circuit

 Thyristor/ SCR Operation

• When the anode voltage is made

positive with respect to the cathode,
junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased
and junction J2 is reverse biased.

• The thyristor is said to be in the forward

blocking or off-state condition.

• A small leakage current flows from

anode to cathode and is called the off-
state current.

40
 Thyristor/ SCR Operation
• If the anode voltage VAK is increased to a
sufficiently large value, the reverse biased
junction J2 would breakdown.
• This is known as avalanche breakdown and the
corresponding voltage is called the forward
breakdown voltage VBO.
• Since the other two junctions J1 and J3 are already
forward biased, there will be free movement of
carriers across all three junctions.
• This results in a large forward current and the
device is now said to be in a conducting or on-
state.  
• The voltage drop across the device in the on-
state is due to the ohmic drop in the four layers
and is very small (in the region of 1 V).
41
Thyristor/ SCR

Latching
current IL

42
Real SCR Characteristic Curve

Latching
current IL

43
 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier
SCR Characteristics
• SCR has a horizontal voltage swing. Voltage
across SCR VF is high before it fires, but then
it drops significantly once it begins conducting.
SCR only conducts in one direction.
• SCR will on if voltage anode to cathode >=
forward breakover voltage V(BR)F. In this
instance the gate current IG can be 0.
• More IG1, IG2 is applied, less V(BR)F1, V(BR)F2, V(BR)F3
is required.
 Thyristor Conduction
ig vs
ia

+ + t
vs vo vo
_ _
t

ig

 t

• Thyristor cannot be turned off by applying negative gate current. It can only
be turned off if Ia goes negative (reverse)
– This happens when negative portion of the of sine-wave occurs (natural
commutation),

• Another method of turning off is known as “forced commutation”,

– The anode current is “diverted” to another circuitry.
 Thyristor Operating modes
Thyristors have three modes :

• Forward blocking mode:

Only leakage current flows,
so thyristor is not
conducting.
• Forward conducting mode:
large forward current flows
through the thyristor. Latching
current IL
• Reverse blocking mode:
When cathode voltage is
increased to reverse
breakdown voltage ,
Avalanche breakdown
occurs and large current
flows.
46
 Important characteristics
Latching Current IL
•This is the minimum anode current required to maintain
the thyristor in the on-state immediately after a thyristor
has been turned on and the gate signal has been removed.
•If a gate current greater than the threshold gate current is
applied until the anode current is greater than the latching
current IL then the thyristor will be turned on or triggered.

Holding Current IH
•This is the minimum anode current required to maintain
the thyristor in the on-state.
•To turn off a thyristor, the forward anode current must be
reduced below its holding current for a sufficient time for
mobile charge carriers to vacate the junction.
47
 Important characteristics
Reverse Current IR
•When the cathode voltage is positive with respect to the
anode, the junction J2 is forward biased but
junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased. The thyristor is said to
be in the reverse blocking state and a reverse leakage current
known as reverse current IR will flow through the device.

Forward Breakover Voltage VBO

•If the forward voltage VAK is increased beyond VBO , the
thyristor can be turned on. But such a turn-on could be
destructive. In practice the forward voltage is maintained
below VBO and the thyristor is turned on by applying a
positive gate signal between gate and cathode.
48
 Turn-on Characteristics

Moment when
SCR start “ON”

ton  td  tr
When IG rise to enough current

to turn SCR ON

49
49
 Turn-off Characteristics
V A K
tC
tq

IA
di
C o m m u t a t io n
A n o d e c u rre n t dt
b e g in s t o
d e cre ase R ecovery R e c o m b in a tio n

t1 t2 t3 t4 t5

tq= d e v ic e o ff t im e
trr tgr
tc= c ir c u it o f f t im e
tq 50
50
tc
• https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/power/thyristor-circuit.html
• SCR =“ON” if inject a small trigger pulse of current 1mA to 50mA into (G)
when SCR is in forward direction (UAK>0) for regenerative latching to occur.
– Once trigger pulse applied, diode between G & K is ON => VGK ~ 0.7V even SCR is not
yet ON
• Generally, trigger pulse ~ several us but the longer the Gate pulse => the
faster the turn-“ON” SCR.
– Once triggered and fully conducting, UAK~ 1.0V for all values of IAK up to its rated
value.
• Once SCR “ON”, SCR continues to conduct even without G signal until IAK < IH
and it automatically turns-“OFF”.
– Unlike BJT and FET’s, SCR cannot be used for amplification or controlled switching.
– in DC circuits and some highly inductive AC circuits the current has to be artificially
reduced by a separate switch or “turn off” circuit.
• SCR are specifically designed for use in high-power switching applications
and do not have the ability of an amplifier.
– SCR operate only in a switching mode like ON/OFF switch.
 The SCR can be turned on at its gate terminal.

With a dc Load Anode

source, the
SCR stays
on after
Cathode
it is gated. current
Load
Gate

Gate pulse Time

occurs here
52
 With an ac Load Anode

source, the
SCR turns
off at the
Cathode
zero-crossing. Gate

off

on
current
Load

Gate pulse Time

occurs here
Turns off here
53
The gate can Load Anode

be pulsed for
each positive
alternation.
Cathode
Gate

current
Load

Time

54
 The average Load Anode

load current
can be
decreased
Cathode
by gating Gate
the SCR later.
current
Load

Time

55
…. and later. Load Anode

Cathode
Gate

current
Load

Time

56
…. or, not Load Anode

at all.

Cathode
Gate

current
Load

No gate pulses: ILoad = 0

0
Time

57
 Parameters and Specifications
• Instantaneous Forward Gate Current
– Instantaneous current flowing between gate and cathode terminals in a direction to
forward bias the gate junction.
• Instantaneous Forward Gate Voltage
– Instantaneous forward voltage between gate and cathode terminals with anode terminal
open.
• DC Gate Trigger Voltage
– Gate voltage with IGT (DC gate trigger current) flowing but prior to start of anode
conduction.
• DC Gate Trigger Current
– Forward gate current required to trigger a thyristor at stated temperature conditions.
• Peak Reverse Gate Voltage
– Maximum allowable peak reverse voltage between the gate terminal and the cathode
terminal.
• Peak Gate Power Dissipation
– Maximum instantaneous value of gate power dissipation.
 Parameters and Specifications
• Average Gate Power Dissipation
– Maximum allowable value of gate power dissipation averaged over a full cycle.
• Holding Current (Gate drive: move to OFF)
– Value of Instantaneous Forward Current below which thyristor returns to forward
blocking state (OFF) after having been in forward conduction under stated
temperature and gate termination conditions.
• Latching Current (after remove Gate drive: mote to ON)
– Value of minimum anode current to remain in the on-state after removal of the
gate trigger pulse under specified condition.
• Instantaneous Reverse Blocking Current
– Instantaneous anode current at stated conditions of negative anode voltage,
junction temperature, and gate termination.
• Instantaneous Forward Blocking Current
– Instantaneous anode current at stated conditions of forward blocking voltage,
junction temperature, and gate termination.
THYRISTOR GATE CHARACTERISTICS
 SCR Characteristics & Ratings
• Forward- breakover voltage, VBR(F): voltage at which SCR enters (ON) region.
• Latching current, IL: Minimum IAK to maintain SCR “ON” immediately after SCR starts “ON”
and G signal has been removed.
• Holding current, IH: Once SCR “ON”, SCR continues to conduct even without G signal until IAK <
IH and it automatically turns-“OFF” => IH is current level below that SCR enter OFF
• Gate trigger current, IGT: value of gate current to switch SCR on.
• Average forward current, IF (avg): maximum continuous IAK(dc) that SCR can withstand.
• Reverse-breakdown voltage, VBR(R): maximum reverse voltage before SCR breaks into avalanche.
 Example of SCR iL & iH
• ádd
 Example of SCR iL & iH
• Áddthe

SCR stays “ON” even after

removing triggering signal
(S2 = OFF)
 Example of SCR iL & iH
• ádd
 Example of SCR iL & iH
• ádd
 Example of SCR iL & iH
• ádd
 Thyristor turn-ON methods

• Thyristor turning ON is also known as Triggering.

• With anode is positive with respect to cathode, a thyristor

can be turned ON by any one of the following techniques :

– Forward voltage triggering         

– Gate triggering
– dv/dt triggering
– Temperature triggering
– Light triggering

67
 Forward Voltage Triggering
• When breakover voltage (VBO) across a thyristor is exceeded
than the rated maximum voltage of the device, thyristor turns
ON.

• At the breakover voltage the value of the thyristor anode

current is called the latching current (IL) .

• Breakover voltage triggering is not normally used as a

triggering method, and most circuit designs attempt to avoid
its occurrence.

• When a thyristor is triggered by exceeding VBO, the fall time of

the forward voltage is quite low (about 1/20th of the time
taken when the thyristor is gate-triggered).

68
 Gate Triggering
• Turning ON of thyristors by gate triggering is simple and
efficient method of firing the forward biased SCRs.

• In Gate Triggering, thyristor with forward breakover

voltage (VBO), higher than the normal working voltage is
chosen.

• Whenever thyristor’s turn-ON is required, a positive gate

voltage b/w gate and cathode is applied.

• Forward voltage at which device switches to on-state

depends upon the magnitude of gate current.
– Higher the gate current, lower is the forward breakover
voltage .
69
 Gate Triggering
• Turning ON of thyristors by gate triggering is simple and
efficient method of firing the forward biased SCRs.

70
 dv/dt triggering
• With forward voltage across anode & cathode of a thyristor, two
outer junctions (A & C) are forward biased but the inner junction
(J2) is reverse biased.
• The reversed biased junction J2 behaves like a capacitor because of
the space-charge present there.
• As p-n junction has capacitance, so larger the junction area the
larger the capacitance.
• If a voltage ramp is applied across the anode-to-cathode, a current
will flow in the device to charge the device capacitance according to
the relation:

• If the charging current becomes large enough, density of moving

current carriers in the device induces switch-on.
• This method of triggering is not desirable because high charging
current (Ic) may damage the thyristor.
71
 Temperature Triggering
• During forward blocking, most of the applied voltage appears
across reverse biased junction J2.
• This voltage across junction J2 associated with leakage current
may raise the temperature of this junction.
• With increase in temperature, leakage current through
junction J2 further increases.
• This cumulative process may turn on the SCR at some high
temperature.
• High temperature triggering may cause Thermal runaway and
is generally avoided.

72
 Light Triggering
• In this method light particles (photons) are made to
strike the reverse biased junction, which causes an
increase in the number of electron hole pairs and
triggering of the thyristor.
• For light-triggered SCRs, a slot (niche) is made in the
inner p-layer.
• When it is irradiated, free charge carriers are
generated just like when gate signal is applied b/w
gate and cathode.
• Pulse light of appropriate wavelength is guided by
optical fibers for irradiation.
• If the intensity of this light thrown on the recess
exceeds a certain value, forward-biased SCR is turned
on. Such a thyristor is known as light-activated SCR
(LASCR).
• Light-triggered thyristors is mostly used in high-
voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission systems.
73
 Thyristor Gate Control Methods
• An easy method to switch ON a SCR into conduction is to
apply a proper positive signal to the gate.

• This signal should be applied when the thyristor is forward

biased and should be removed after the device has been
switched ON.

• Thyristor turn ON time should be in range of 1-4 micro

seconds, while turn-OFF time must be between 8-50 micro
seconds.

• Thyristor gate signal can be of three varieties.

– D.C Gate signal
– A.C Gate Signal
– Pulse
74
 Thyristor Gate Control Methods
D.C Gate signal: Application of a d.c gate signal causes the flow of
gate current which triggers the SCR.
– Trigger angle <= 90 deg
– Disadvantage is that the gate signal has to be continuously applied, resulting in
power loss.
– Gate control circuit is also not isolated from the main power circuit.
– S2 high power switch

75
 Thyristor Gate Control Methods
A.C Gate Signal: In this method a phase - shifted a.c voltage derived from the
mains supplies the gate signal.
– Instant of firing can be controlled by phase angle control of the gate signal.
– During positive cycle, C charges up via R1 while SCR OFF. G is activated only when VA
has risen enough (depending on RC constant) to turn ON D1 and C starts discharge
via G & K, turning SCR “ON”.
– Increasing R1 will delay GTAK and ITAK, causing a lag in SCR conduction time => SCR
conduction can be controlled between 0 and 180 deg (50% efficiency)

Trigger angle: 0 to 180 deg

Trigger angle <= 90 deg (RC to delay/lengthen trigger angle) 76
 Thyristor Gate Control Methods
Pulse: Here the SCR is triggered by the application of a positive pulse of
correct magnitude.
– For Thyristors it is important to switched ON at proper instants in a
certain sequence.
– This can be done by train of the high frequency pulses at proper
instants through a logic circuit.
– A pulse transformer is used for circuit isolation.

77
 Pulse/Pulse Train Triggering Signals?
• Gate drive requirements in terms of continuous dc signal can be obtained from Fig.
4.11. But, it is common to use a pulse to trigger a thyristor. For pulse widths beyond
100 µsec, the dc data apply . For pulse widths less than 100 µsec, magnitudes of
gate voltage and gate current can be increased.
• For thyristors, higher the magnitude of gate current pulse, lesser is the time to
inject the required charge for turning-on the thyristor. Thus, SCR turn-on time can
be reduced by using gate current of higher magnitude. It should be ensured that
pulse width is sufficient to allow the anode current to exceed the latching current.
In practice, gate pulse width is often taken as equal/or greater than, SCR turn-on
time.
• Sometimes the pulses of Fig. 4.12 (a) are modulated to generate a train of pulses as
shown in Fig. 4.12 (b). This technique of firing the thyristor is called high-frequency
carrier gating. The advantages offered by this method of firing the SCRs are lower
rating, reduced dimensions and therefore an overall economical design of the pulse
transformer needed for isolating the low power circuit from the main power circuit.
 Thyristor Commutation
• Commutation: Process of turning off a conducting thyristor

• SCR cannot be turned OFF via the gate terminal.

• It will turn-off only after the anode current is negated either

naturally or using forced commutation techniques.

• Therefore, commutation can be classified as

–Natural commutation
–Forced commutation

79
 Line Commutation (Natural Commutation)
• Occurs only in AC circuits.
• Natural Commutation of thyristor takes place in
– AC Voltage Regulators
– Phase controlled rectifiers
– Cycloconverters

80
Thyristor Turn-Off: Line-Commutated Thyristor Circuit

81
 Forced Commutation
• Applied to d.c circuits.

• If a thyristor is used in a DC circuit, when first turned on, it will stay

on until the current goes to zero. To turn off the thyristor it is
possible to use a Forced commutation circuit. The circuit creates a
reverse voltage over the thyristor (and a small reverse current) for a
short time, but long enough to turn off the thyristor.

82
 1. Firing angle (how much:
30 deg)
2. Shape of pulse (square)
- Vol level
- Current
- Pulse width
(other if any)
3. IC555???

1. AC->DC:
comparator =>
square wave
2. Input to Gate
Gate control and drive
drive/Amp is AC power
3.
Gate
Control
 Analog Circuit: Generate Gating Signals
• Analog circuit
Analog Circuit: PWM Signal Generation
•
Analog Circuit Example for Gating Signals
In the figure, the first stage is a control transformer for stepping down the line voltage. The secondary
of the transformer is fed to the zero-cross detector.
• In systems where the ac supply has high impedance, the non-sinusoidal current of the bridge causes
distortion of the line voltage. The result of the distortion of the line voltage waveform is multiple zero
crossings and zero-cross jitter.
– The latter means that the zero-cross frequency fluctuates. The former means that more than one zero
crossing may occur around the zero-cross of the fundamental of the line voltage. Multiple zero-cross and
zero-cross jitter could result in unsymmetrical firing of the bridge => distortion of the line voltage =>
harmonic instability.
– To prevent un-symmetry, the zero-cross detector is equipped with hysterisis comparators and a PLL. The
former eliminates multiple zero crossings. The latter stabilizes and locks the frequency of the detection pulses
to the line fundamental zero-crossings.
• The firing pulse generator utilizes the zero-cross
pulses of the previous stage to generate a periodic
ramp. The ramp is reset and commences rising with
the onset of each zero-cross pulse. This ramp is
compared with a reference voltage proportional to
the desired ignition delay angle. A short firing pulse
is generated at the moment the ramp exceeds the
reference voltage.
• The final stage is the gate drive circuit. This stage amplifies, shapes and delivers the firing pulses to
the gate of the thyristors. In the majority of applications galvanic isolation is needed between the
drive circuit and the thyristor gate. This isolation may be provided through pulse transformers, opto-
couplers, or optical fiber cable (for light triggered thyristors, LTSCR).
 Analog Circuit Example for Gating Signals
• In lower comparator, the negative line voltage is compared with the zero
level. Thus, this comparator is high, when line voltage is negative & low,
when the line voltage is positive. The upper comparator compares the
positive line voltage with the level of 0.7V=> pulse width. Thus, the output
of this comparator is high when line voltage exceeds 0.7V & low otherwise.
• The output of both comparators is "ORed" through two diodes. The
combined output is a negative notch at the arrival of a zero crossing. The
negative notch is inverted through a transistor and a short pulse is obtained
at the output of the stage, which is synchronous to the line zero-cross as
shown in the figures below.
Need one shot circuit
(monostable) to create
pulse of certain width
Alpha trigger
angle Need one shot circuit
(monostable) to create
pulse of certain width
 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier
Application – On-Off Control of Current
Assuming the SCR is initially off. SW1 close,
provide a pulse of current into the gate. SCR on so
it conduct current to load. Remain in conduction
even after the momentary conduct of SW1 is
removed if the IA =>than IH.
 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier
Application – On-Off Control of Current
When SW2 is momentary closed, IA reduced to
below IH. SCR off.
In this circuit SW1 is pressed momentarily to turn
the SCR on and SW2 is pressed momentarily to
turn it off.
 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier
Application -
Rain Fall Detector and Burglar Alarm
Single-phase Thyristor Half-Bridge Rectifier
 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier
Application – Half Wave Power Control
• Application in lamp dimmer, electric heater,
electric motor.
• Vac are applied across terminal A and B. RL
represents the resistance of load (heating
element or lamp element). R1 limits the current.
R2 is potentiometer (it sets the trigger level
for the SCR).
 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier
Application – Half Wave Power Control
• By adjusting R2, SCR can be made to trigger at any point
on the positive half cycle of ac waveform (0 to 900)
• When trigger at beginning, it conducts for
approximately 1800 and maximum power is delivered to
load.
 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier
Application – Half Wave Power Control
• When trigger at near peak of positive half cycle, it
conducts for approximately 900 and less power is
delivered to load.
• When input goes negative, SCR off and diode is used to
prevent negative ac voltage from being applied to the
gate of SCR.
 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier
Application: Over -Voltage protection Circuit –Crow Bar Circuit
• Vout dc from regulator is monitor by zener, D1 and
resistive voltage divider R1 and R2. The Vout max is set by
zener voltage, if this voltage exceeded, D1 conducts and
voltage divider produces an SCR trigger voltage. SCR on
and connected across the line voltage. SCR current
causes the fuse to blow, thus disconnecting the line
voltage from power supply.
 SCR Gate Drives
Problems & Solutions
 Outline
• Introduction
• Voltage Divider Triggering
• RC Triggering
• Double RC Triggering
 Introduction
• The popular terms used to describe how SCR is operating are
conduction angle and firing delay angle.

– Conduction angle is the number of degrees of an ac cycle during which

the SCR is turned ON.

– Firing delay angle is the number of degrees of an ac cycle that elapses

before the SCR is turned ON.

• Of course, these terms are based on the notion of total cycle

time (3600)
 Introduction
• An SCR is fired by a short burst of current into the gate (IG).

• The amount of gate current needed to a fire particular SCR is

symbolized as IGT.

• Most SCRs require current between 0.1 and 50mA.

• Since there is a standard pn-junction between gate and

cathode, voltage between these two terminals (VGK) must be
slightly greater than 0.7 volt.
 Example-1
• For the circuit shown in figure below, what voltage is required at
point X to fire the SCR? The gate current needed to fire 2N3669
is 20mA under normal conditions.
Solution

• The voltage between point X and

cathode must be sufficient to forward
bias the junction between X and K (0.7V).
• And also at least cause 20mA to flow
from 150Ω resistor.
• For 20mA current to flow in XG branch
we need

• Therefore,
 Gate Control Circuits
• Gate Control Circuit Design
• Consideration must be given to the following points when designing
gate control circuits.

• The gate signal should be removed after the thyristor has been
turned on. A continuous gate signal will increase the power
loss in the gate junction.

• No gate signal should be applied when the thyristor is reversed

biased. If a gate signal is applied under these conditions, the
thyristor may fail due to an increased leakage current.

• The width of the gate pulse must be greater than the time
required for the anode current to rise to the holding current. In
practice, the gate pulse width is made wider than the turn-on
time of the thyristor.
106
 Gate Control Circuits
• A simple type of gate control circuit (triggering circuit) is shown
in following figure.

• When SW is closed, there

will be current into the
gate when supply voltage
goes positive.

• Firing delay angle is

determined by setting of
R2.
 Gate Control Circuits
• One disadvantage of this simple triggering circuit is that the firing delay angle is
adjustable is only from about 00 to 900
• (IGTmax is at 90%, after that it will go down => if trigger angle > 90 deg, it will conduct before 90 deg or not conduct)

• This can be understood by referring to

following figure.
 Example-2
• For following figure assume that the supply is 115V rms,
IGT=15mA, and R1=3KΩ. The firing delay is desired to be 20o. To
40Ω
what value should R2 be adjusted? B

Solution 3KΩ

• At 20o instantaneous
supply voltage is

• Voltage drop across Load

 Example-2
• Total resistance in the
gate lead is given by

40Ω

3KΩ

• Therefore, R2 is
 Example-3
• For following figure assume that the supply is 115V rms,
IGT=15mA, and R1=3KΩ. The firing delay is desired to be 30o. To
what value should R2 be adjusted?
Solution
40Ω

• At 30o instantaneous
supply voltage is 3KΩ

• Voltage drop across Load

 Example-3
• Total resistance in the
gate lead is given by
40Ω

3KΩ

• Therefore, R2 is
 Example-4
• For following figure assume that the supply is 115V rms,
IGT=15mA, and R1=3KΩ. The firing delay is desired to be 60o. To
what value should R2 be adjusted?
Solution
40Ω

• At 30o instantaneous
supply voltage is 3KΩ

• Voltage drop across Load

 Example-4
• Total resistance in the
gate lead is given by
40Ω

3KΩ

• Therefore, R2 is
 Example-5
• For following figure assume that the supply is 115V rms,
IGT=15mA, and R1=3KΩ. The firing delay is desired to be 90o. To
what value should R2 be adjusted?
Solution
40Ω

• At 90o instantaneous
supply voltage is 3KΩ

• Voltage drop across Load

 Example-5
• Total resistance in the
gate lead is given by
40Ω

3KΩ

• Therefore, R2 is
 Example-6
• For following figure assume that the supply is 115V rms,
IGT=15mA, and R1=3KΩ. The firing delay is desired to be 150o. To
what value should R2 be adjusted?
Solution
40Ω

• At 150o instantaneous
supply voltage is 3KΩ

• Voltage drop across Load

 Example-6
• Total resistance in the
gate lead is given by
5Ω

3KΩ

• Therefore, R2 is

• R2 is same as it was for firing angle of 30o. Therefore with this

circuit arrangement it is not possible to fire SCR beyond 90o.
 Example-7
• For following figure assume that the supply is 115V rms,
IGT=15mA, and R1=3KΩ. The firing delay is desired to be 10o. To
what value should R2 be adjusted?
Solution
40Ω

• At 10o instantaneous
supply voltage is 3KΩ

• Voltage drop across Load

 Example-7
• Total resistance in the
gate lead is given by
40Ω

3KΩ

• Therefore, R2 is

• Cannot have firing angle of 10o. For extended firing angle R1 can be
made smaller.
 Example-8
• For following figure assume that the supply is 115V rms,
IGT=15mA, and R1=3KΩ. The firing delay is desired to be 18o. To
what value should R2 be adjusted?
Solution
40Ω

• At 15o instantaneous
supply voltage is 3KΩ

• Voltage drop across Load

 Example-8
• Total resistance in the
gate lead is given by

40Ω

3KΩ

• Therefore, R2 is
 Conclusion
• The value of resistor R2 is increasing as firing angle is
further delayed.

S. No Firing Angle R2
1 10o -1.21KΩ
2 18 160Ω
Range of 3 20o 600Ω
Firing 4 30o 2.3KΩ
Angles The same 30deg
5 60o 9.3KΩ => Firing angle is
6 90o 7.7KΩ only 30 deg even
150 deg is
7 150o 2.3KΩ requested
 RC Triggering Circuits
• The simplest method of improving gate control is to add a
capacitor at the bottom of the gate lead resistance as shown in
following figure.

• Advantage of this circuit

is that the firing delay
angle can be adjusted
past 90o.
 RC Triggering Circuits
• This can be understood by focusing on the voltage across
Capacitor C.
• When the ac supply is –ve, the
reverse voltage across SCR is
applied to RC triggering circuit,
charging the capacitor –ve on
top plate and +ve on bottom
plate.
• When the supply enters its
positive half cycle, the forward
voltage drop across SCR tends
to charge C in opposite
direction.
• However, voltage buildup in
new direction is delayed until
the –ve charge is removed.
 RC Triggering Circuits
• The idea can be extended to achieve even extended firing
angles by modifying the circuit slightly.

• A resistor has been inserted into

the gate lead, requiring the
capacitor to charge higher than 0.7
V to trigger the SCR.

• With the resistor in place,

capacitor voltage must reach a
value large enough to force
sufficient current (IGT) through the
resistor.
 RC Triggering Circuits
• The firing delay angle can further be extended by the use of
double RC network as shown in following figure.

• The delayed voltage across C1 is

used to charge C2 resulting in even
further delay in building up the
gate voltage.
– When apply Vsupply, VC1 charge first,
causing triggering delay compared to
no C1 and when Vsupply applied directly
to G through resistors => then VC1 is
used to charge VC2, causing another
triggering delay
 Triggering
• 50Hz sine wave takes 1/50 seconds to complete one cycle.
 RC Triggering Circuits
• Capacitors in RC triggering circuits usually fall in the range from
0.01µF to 1µF.

• For the given capacitor sizes minimum firing

delay angle (maximum load current) is set by
fixed resistors R1 and R3.

• The maximum firing angle (minimum load

current) is set mostly by variable resistor R2.

• When these gate control circuits are used

with 50Hz AC supply, the time constant of
the RC circuit should fall in the range of 1-
20ms.
 RC Triggering Circuits
• For single RC circuit of fig (a) the product (R 1+R2)C1 should fall in the
range 1ms to 20ms.

Fig(a)

• For double RC circuit of fig(b) (R1+R2)C1 should fall in that range and
R3C2 should also fall in that range.

Fig(b)
 Example-9
• For the circuit shown in following figure approximate the R1, R2
and R3 to give wide range of firing adjustment.
 Example-9

• Minimum time constant occurs in RC

network-1 when R2 is set to minimum.
 Example-9

• Maximum time constant occurs in RC

netwrok-1 when R2 is set to maximum.
 Example-9

• Time constant of RC netwrok-2 is 2ms.

 Example-9
• Minimum and maximum firing angles
are (1ms  360o/20ms = 18o)
 Example-10
• For the circuit shown in following figure, to what value the
potentiometer be set to obtain a firing delay angle of 120o.
 DiAc and Triac
• Both  the  Diac  and  the Triac  are  types  of Thyristors
that  can  conduct  current  in  both  directions
(bilateral).   They  are  four‐layer  devices.
• Diac and triac unlike the SCR will conduct in both
directions making it ideal for ac applications. Diac has
two terminals, while triac has a third terminal, which is
the gate for triggering.
• Diac function basically like two parallel 4-layer diodes
(Shockley diodes) turned in opposite direction. The triac
function basically like two parallel SCR turned in
opposite directions with a common gate terminal.
• Diac turns on when breakover voltage is reached in
either direction.
 Diac
• Diac is also a breakover type device. It’s has
two terminals A1 and A2. When breakover
voltage reach conduction occur with either
polarity across the two terminals.
 Diac
• Once breakover occurs, current direction
depending on the polarity of the voltage across
the terminal. The device turn off when the
current drops below the holding value. The
breakover voltage is approximately symmetrical
for a positive and a negative breakover voltage.
 Diac
• When Diac is biased, the pnpn structure from
A1 to A2 (positive direction) provide the same
operation as 4-layer diode. In equivalent circuit
Q1 and Q2 are fwd-bias, Q3 and Q4 are rev-bias.
The other way around if Diac is biased from A 2
to A1.
 DIAC Applications
• Diacs are used primarily for triggering of triacs.
• Some of the circuit applications of diac are
– Lamp Dimmer
– Heat Control

143
 Triac
• Triac is basically a diac with a gate terminal.
Triac can be turned on by a pulse at the gate
and does not require breakover voltage to
initiate conduction, as Diac.
• Basically triac can be though as two SCR
connected in parallel and in opposite directions
with a common gate terminal.
• Unlike SCR, triac can conduct current in either
direction when it is trigger on, depends on the
polarity of the voltage across A1 and A2
terminals.
 Triac
* Breakover potential
decrease as the gate
current increase (as SCR).

* Triac cease to conduct

when IA drop below
specified value of IH. The
only way to turn off the
triac is to reduce the
current to a sufficiently
low level.

•Ι +  Mode = MT2 current positive (+ve), Gate current positive (+ve)

•Ι –  Mode = MT2 current positive (+ve), Gate current negative (-ve)
•ΙΙΙ +  Mode = MT2 current negative (-ve), Gate current positive (+ve)
•ΙΙΙ –  Mode = MT2 current negative (-ve), Gate current negative (-ve)
Modes Ι– and ΙΙΙ+ are, however, less sensitive configurations requiring a greater gate current
Phase controlled bidirectional switching with
Triacs
 Triac
• When fired by the gate or by exceeding the
breakover voltage, the Triac conducts in both
directions.
• Triac being used in AC power control circuits.
Example-1

148
 Example-1
• Solution

a) How will you trigger the triac by only +ve voltage?

149
 Example-1
• Solution

b) How will you trigger the triac by only -ve voltage?

VA = - (VF+VGT)
= - 2.7V

150
Example-2

151
 Example-2
• Solution

DIAC: ON when VA >= VBO =>

create current to turn TRIAC ON
- make TRIAC less sensitive to
voltage change applied to its gate
- And provide a sharp trigger
current pulse to fully turn-ON the
Triac

152
Example-3
At the start of each cycle, C1 charges up via VR1 until
VC1 is sufficient to trigger Diac ON (triac gate pulse
starts) => C1 to discharge into the gate of the triac
turning Triac “ON”.

Once triac is ON, it shorts out the gate triggering phase

control circuit => no gate triac current (triac gate pulse of
very short time ends) => the triac takes control for the
remainder of the half-cycle.
Triac turns-OFF automatically at the end of the half-
cycle and the VR1 – C1 triggering process starts again
on the next half cycle.

Because the triac requires differing amounts of gate

current in each switching mode of operation, for
example Ι+ and ΙΙΙ–, a triac is therefore asymmetrical
meaning that it may not trigger at the exact same point
for each positive and negative half cycle.

To change gate triggering angle, either change VR1

or change VBO of DIAC 153
Triac Triggering

Circuit (b) has wider control range beyond 90°

The diac popular breakover

voltage is around 32 V
TRIAC Driver: Isolated Gate Driver
 Triac
Application- Phase Control
• Here R1 controls the trigger point at which the
triac turns on for each half of the cycle.
• The off time is called delay angle and the on
time is called the conduction angle.
 Triac
Application- Phase Control
• D1 is used to provide trigger pulses to triac
gate and conduct during positive half at which
the triac trigger. A1 and G are positive with
respect to A2.

• D2 conduct during negative half cycle and R1 set

the trigger point. A2 and G are positive with
respect to A1.
 Triac Waveforms

The higher the firing angle

the lower the average power
Please note the asymmetrical
behavior in (C)
 Example of Triac Ratings
• Used in heat / light control, ac motor control circuit
• V / I rating: 1200V / 300A.
• Max. Frequency: 400Hz.
• Switching time: 200 to 400sec.
• On state resistance: 3.6m.
 TRIAC Applications
• Electrical AC power control using a Triac is extremely
effective when used properly to control resistive type
loads such as incandescent lamps, heaters or small
universal motors commonly found in portable power
tools and small appliances.

160
 DIAC Applications
– Lamp Dimmer

161
 DIAC Applications
– Heat Control

162
Example: Control Speed of AC Motor
Example: AC Load Interface to MCU
Example: AC Dimmer
Example: AC Dimmer
Example: AC Dimmer
Example: AC Dimmer
 Outline
• Power Transistors
– Power BJT

– Power MOSFET

– IGBT

• GTO

170
 Power Transistors
• Power transistors are fully controlled semiconductor
switches.

• These are turned ON when the signal (voltage or current)

is given to control terminal.

• Types
– Power BJT
– Power MOSFET
– Insulated Gate Bipolar Junction Transistor (IGBT)

171
 Power BJT
• The symbol of the Power BJT is same as signal
level transistor.

172
 Power BJT
• The construction of the Power Transistor is  different from the
signal transistor as shown in the following figure.

• The n- layer is added in the power BJT which is known as drift

region. 173
 Power BJT
• A Power BJT has a four layer structure of alternating P and
N type doping.

• In most of Power Electronic applications, the Power

Transistor works in Common Emitter configuration.

• In power switches npn transistors are most widely used

than pnp transistors.

• The thickness of the drift region determines the breakdown

voltage of the Power transistor.
174
 VI Characteristics

In Quasi-saturation, both
junctions are forward bias. BJT
offers low resistance => power
loss is less. In this region, the
device does not go into deep
saturation. So, it can turn off
quickly.
=> higher frequency
applications.

175
 VI Characteristics
• The  VI characteristics of the Power BJT is different from signal level
transistor.

• The major differences are Quasi saturation region & secondary

breakdown region.

• The Quasi saturation region is available only in Power transistor

characteristic not in signal transistors. It is because of the lightly
doped collector drift region present in Power BJT.

• The primary breakdown is similar to the signal transistor’s avalanche

breakdown. 

• Operation of device at primary and secondary breakdown regions

should be avoided as it will lead to the catastrophic failure of the
device.

176
 Power MOSFET
A power MOSFET is a specific type of 
metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) designed to
handle significant power levels. Compared to the other 
power semiconductor devices, such as an insulated-gate bipolar transistor
 (IGBT) or a thyristor, its main advantages are high switching speed and
good efficiency at low voltages. It shares with the IGBT an isolated gate that
makes it easy to drive.

The power MOSFET shares its operating principle with its low-power
counterpart, the lateral MOSFET

Power MOSFETs have much lower Ron than other low power signal types.

The power MOSFET is the most common power semiconductor device

 in the world, due to its low gate drive power, fast switching speed, easy
advanced paralleling capability, wide bandwidth, ruggedness, easy drive,
simple biasing, ease of application, and ease of repair. In particular, it is the
most widely used low-voltage (that is, less than 200 V) switch. It can be
found in a wide range of applications, such as most power supplies, 
DC-to-DC converters, low-voltage motor controllers, and 
many other applications.

177
Power MOSFET

178
Power MOSFET

179
• IGBT is a new development in area of Power MOSFET
technology.
• Application in high voltage or high frequency => can synthesize
complex waveforms PWM, lowpass filers, switching amplifiers,
variable-frequency drives (VFDs), electric cars, trains, variable
speed refrigerators, lamp ballasts, and air-conditioners.

• This device combines into it the advantages of both MOSFET and

BJT.
• So an IGBT has high input impedance like a MOSFET and low on
state power loss like a BJT.
• Further, IGBT is free from second breakdown problem presented
in BJT.
180
 Cross-Sectional View of an IGBT

Metal

Silicon Dioxide

Metal

181
Cross-Sectional View of an IGBT

182
 IGBT
•  It is an FET integrated with a bipolar transistor in a form of
Darlington configuration.

183
 IGBT I-V Characteristics
IGBT is simply “ON” or “OFF” by activating and deactivating G. Applying a positive input
voltage signal across GE will turn “ON”, while making the input gate signal zero or slightly
negative will cause it “OFF” in much the same way as a bipolar transistor or eMOSFET.
Another advantage of the IGBT is that it has a much lower on-state channel resistance than
a standard MOSFET.

184
 IGBT
• “IGBT Transistor” has the output switching and conduction
characteristics of a bipolar transistor but is voltage-controlled
like a MOSFET.
– IGBT’s gate driver is similar to MOSFET

• IGBTs are mainly used in power electronics applications, such as

inverters, converters and power supplies, were the demands of the
solid state switching device are not fully met by power BJTs and
power MOSFETs.
• High-current and high-voltage BJTs are available, but their switching speeds
are slow, while power MOSFETs may have higher switching speeds, but high-
voltage and high-current devices are expensive and hard to achieve.

185
Comparison Table

186
SCR REVIEW
 SCR Ratings
(a) SCR Current Ratings
1- Maximum Repetitive RMS current Rating
• Average on-state current is the maximum average current value that can be carried by the SCR in
its on state.
• RMS value of nonsinusoidal waveform is simplified by approximating it by rectangular waveform.
• This approximation give higher RMS value, but leaves slight safety factor.
• Average value of pulse is

• Form factor is
• Knowing the form factor for given waveform, RMS current can be
obtained from

I RMS =fo(IAVE)
• Maximum repetitive RMS current is given by

I T(RMS) =fo(IT(AVE))
• Conduction angle verses form factor
Conduction angle (θ) Form factor (fo)
20° 5.0
40° 3.5
60° 2.7
80° 2.3
100° 2.0
120° 1.8
140° 1.6
160° 1.4
180° 1.3
 Conduction Angle

• Duration for which SCR is on. It is measured as shown

2- Surge Current Rating
Peak anode current that SCR can handle for brief duration.

3- Latching current
Minimum anode current that must flow through the SCR in order for it to
stay on initially after gate signal is removed.

4- Holding Current
Minimum value of anode current, required to maintain SCR in conducting
state.
 (b) SCR Voltage Ratings

1- Peak repetitive forward blocking voltage

Maximum instantaneous voltage that SCR can block in forward direction.
2- Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage
Maximum instantaneous voltage that SCR can withstand, without
breakdown, in reverse direction.
3- Non-repetitive peak reverse voltage
Maximum transient reverse voltage that SCR can withstand.
 (c) SCR Rate-of-Change Ratings

1- (di/dt rating)
Critical rate of rise of on-state current. It is the rate at which anode current increases and must be
less than rate at which conduction area increases.
To prevent damage to SCR by high di/dt value, small inductance is added in series with device. Vaue
of required inductance is
L>= Vp
(di/dt)max

2- dv/dt rating
Maximum rise time of a voltage pulse that can be applied to the SCR in the off state without causing
it to fire. Unscheduled firing due to high value of dv/dt can be prevented by using RC snubber circuit.
 (d) Gate Parameters
1- Maximum Gate Peak Inverse Voltage
Maximum value of negative DC voltage that can be applied without damaging the gate-cathode junction.

2-Maximum Gate Trigger Current

Maximum DC gate current allowed to turn on the device.

3- Maximum gate trigger voltage

DC voltage necessary to produce maximum gate trigger current.

4- Maximum Gate Power Dissipation

Maximum instantaneous product of gate current and gate voltage that can exist during forward-bias.

5- Minimum gate trigger voltage

Minimum DC gate-to-cathode voltage required to trigger the SCR.

6-Minimum gate trigger current

Minimum DC gate current necessary to turn SCR on.
 Comparison between different commonly
used Thyristors
• Line Commutated Thyristors available up to 6000V,
4500A.
• Ex: Converter grade (line commutated) SCR.
• V / I rating: 5KV / 5000A
• Max. Frequency: 60Hz.
• Switching time: 100 to 400sec.
• On state resistance: 0.45m.
 Example of Inverter Grade Thyristor Ratings
• V / I rating: 4500V / 3000A.
• Max. Frequency: 20KHz.
• Switching time: 20 to 100sec.
• On state resistance: 0.5m.
 SCR Datasheet Reading
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z_Q-BMsq-fE&list=WL&index=82&t=1s

- AVR (Average) values are used for BJT, MOSFET, SCR in DC

- RMS values are used for bilateral devices like TRIAC in AC
 SCR Datasheet Reading
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z_Q-BMsq-fE&list=WL&index=82&t=1s
 SCR Datasheet Reading
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z_Q-BMsq-fE&list=WL&index=82&t=1s
 SCR Datasheet Reading
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z_Q-BMsq-fE&list=WL&index=82&t=1s
 SCR Datasheet Reading
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z_Q-BMsq-fE&list=WL&index=82&t=1s
 SCR Datasheet Reading
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z_Q-BMsq-fE&list=WL&index=82&t=1s
 SCR Datasheet Reading
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z_Q-BMsq-fE&list=WL&index=82&t=1s
 SCR Datasheet Example
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z_Q-BMsq-fE&list=WL&index=82&t=1s
SCR Datasheet Example
 What is Commutation for SCR?
• What is Commutation?
The process of turning off an SCR is called
commutation.

It is achieved by
1. Reducing anode current below holding current
2. Make anode negative with respect to cathode

• Types of commutation are:

1. Natural or line commutation
2. Forced commutation
 SCR Turnoff Methods
1. Diverting the anode current to an alternate path

2. Shorting the SCR from anode to cathode

3. Applying a reverse voltage (by making the cathode positive with

respect to the anode) across the SCR

4. Forcing the anode current to zero for a brief period

5. Opening the external path from its anode supply voltage

6. Momentarily reducing supply voltage to zero

 (1) Capacitor Commutation

• SCR turnoff circuit using a transistor switch

• SCR turnoff circuit using commutation capacitor

• Value of capacitance is determined by:

C>= tOFF
0.693RL
(2) Commutation By External Source
 (3) Commutation by Resonance
 Series resonant turnoff circuit
 Parallel resonant turnoff circuit
(4) AC line commutation
GATE TRIGGERING/DRIVE CIRCUITS
 Gate-Triggering Circuits
• Triggering circuits provide firing signal to turn on power switches at
precisely the correct time.
• Firing circuits must have following properties
1. Produce gate signal of suitable magnitude and sufficiently short rise time.
• The gate signal should be removed after the thyristor has been turned on. A continuous gate signal
will increase the power loss in the gate junction.
2. Produce gate signal of adequate duration.
• The width of the gate pulse must be greater than the time required for the anode current to rise to
the holding current. In practice, the gate pulse width is made wider than the turn-on time of the
thyristor.
3. Provide accurate firing control over the required range.
4. Ensure that triggering does not occur from false signals or noise
5. In AC applications, ensure that the gate signal is applied at right times (e.g., when the SCR is
forward-biased)
• No gate signal should be applied when the thyristor is reversed biased. Otherwise, the thyristor may
fail due to an increased leakage current.
6. For SCR in three-phase circuits, provide gate pulses that are 120° apart with respect to the
reference point
7. Ensure simultaneous triggering of power switches (e.g., SCRs) connected in series or in
parallel.
 What are Gating requirements
• Kind or type of application which required a switching action
• Propagation delay (speed of switching)
• Rated Voltage for Breakdown Voltage (VBO) for triggering
• Holding Current (IHo)
• The avanlache voltage
• What is gate firing network.
The firing network is the combination of two 4 layer device which
is the thyristor, for example, the diac is used to attached to the
gate terminal of GTO, TRIAC, SCR and other three terminal
thyristor device. also we can used the capacitor to delay the firing
action of the device.
 Pulse/Pulse Train Triggering Signals?
• Gate drive requirements in terms of continuous dc signal can be obtained from Fig.
4.11. But, it is common to use a pulse to trigger a thyristor. For pulse widths beyond
100 µsec, the dc data apply . For pulse widths less than 100 µsec, magnitudes of
gate voltage and gate current can be increased.
• For thyristors, higher the magnitude of gate current pulse, lesser is the time to
inject the required charge for turning-on the thyristor. Thus, SCR turn-on time can
be reduced by using gate current of higher magnitude. It should be ensured that
pulse width is sufficient to allow the anode current to exceed the latching current.
In practice, gate pulse width is often taken as equal/or greater than, SCR turn-on
time.
• Sometimes the pulses of Fig. 4.12 (a) are modulated to generate a train of pulses as
shown in Fig. 4.12 (b). This technique of firing the thyristor is called high-frequency
carrier gating. The advantages offered by this method of firing the SCRs are lower
rating, reduced dimensions and therefore an overall economical design of the pulse
transformer needed for isolating the low power circuit from the main power circuit.
 Firing Circuit – Firing Angle Control

• Firing circuit –firing angle control

 Establish relation between vc and Vt

+
iref + current vc firing  controlled
Vt
- controller circuit rectifier
–
 AC-DC controlled rectifier

+
vc firing  controlled rectifier
Va
circuit
–

vc(s) va(s)
? DC motor

The relation between vc and va is determined by the firing circuit

It is desirable to have a linear relation between vc and va

 AC-DC controlled rectifier

linear firing angle control

Vm
Input voltage
0  2 3 4

vc vt
Sawtooth compared with control signal

Results of comparison to trigger SCRs

Output voltage
 AC-DC controlled rectifier

linear firing angle control

vt vc

Vm  
 3 4
0 2
vc
 
vt
vc vt
vc
 

2Vm  vc 
Va  cos    

  vt 

A non-linear relation between Va and vc

 Firing/Triggering Control

+
vc firing  controlled rectifier
Va
circuit
–

vc(s) va(s)
? DC motor

The relation between vc and va is determined by the firing circuit

It is desirable to have a linear relation between vc and va

 Firing/Triggering Control

Cosine-wave crossing control

Vm
Input voltage
0  2 3 4

vc vs
Cosine wave compared with vc

Results of comparison trigger SCRs

Output voltage
 Firing/Triggering Control
Example: DC drives with Controlled rectifier
Cosine-wave crossing control
Vscos(t)
cos() = vc
Vm
v 
0  2 3 4   cos 1  c 
 vs 

vc vs

2Vm v c  1  v c 
Va  cos cos
   

 vs   vs 


A linear relation between vc and Va

 Firing angle control: Linear/Nonlinear

• Firing angle control linear firing angle control

vt v vc
 c  180
180  vt

2Vm  vc 
Va  cos 180 
  vt 

Cosine-wave crossing control

v c  v s cos 

2Vm v c
Va 
 vs
 AC-DC controlled rectifier

e.g. cosine wave crossing control

Monostable to create a pulse of certain width
 Firing/Triggering Control

Va is the average voltage over one period of the waveform

- sampled data system

Delays depending on when the control signal changes – normally taken as half of
sampling period
 Firing/Triggering Control

Va is the average voltage over one period of the waveform

- sampled data system

Delays depending on when the control signal changes – normally taken as half of
sampling period
 Modeling: Firing/Triggering Control

•Steady state: linear gain amplifier

•Cosine wave–crossing method
•Transient: sampler with zero order hold
converter

T
GH(s)

T – 10 ms for 1-phase 50 Hz system

– 3.33 ms for 3-phase 50 Hz system
 Modeling: Firing/Triggering Control

• Model simplified to linear gain if bandwidth (e.g.

current loop) much lower than sampling
frequency
 Low bandwidth – limited applications

• Low frequency voltage ripple  high current

ripple  undesirable
 Example: Firing/Triggering Control
Modeling of the Power Converters: DC drives with SM Converters

Vdc
Switching signals obtained by comparing
control signal with triangular wave +

Va

vtri

q
vc

We want to establish a relation between vc and Va

AVERAGE voltage

vc(s) Va(s)
? DC motor
 Example: Firing/Triggering Control
Modeling of the Power Converters: DC drives with SM Converters

Bipolar switching scheme

Vdc
vc
2vtri
-Vdc
q
vtri
+
Vdc
Vdc vA
+ VAB 
0
vc −
Vdc
vB
0
q
Vdc
vAB
-Vdc
 Example: Firing/Triggering Control
Modeling of the Power Converters: DC drives with SM Converters

Bipolar switching scheme

v a ( s) Vdc

v c ( s) Vtri

vc(s) Vdc va(s)

DC motor
Vtri
 Example: Firing/Triggering Control
Modeling of the Power Converters: DC drives with SM Converters
Vdc
Unipolar switching scheme vc
Leg b
Vtri
+ -vc

vtri Vdc

qa
vc −

vA
Leg a

vtri

-vc qb vB

vAB

The same average value we’ve seen for bipolar !

 Example: Firing/Triggering Control
Modeling of the Power Converters: DC drives with SM Converters
Unipolar switching scheme

v a ( s) Vdc

v c ( s) Vtri

vc(s) Vdc va(s)

DC motor
Vtri
 Methods of Thyristor Turn-on/Triggering
• Thyristors can be turned On/Triggered by several methods:
– Thermal /TemperatureTurn-on (is normally avoided).
– Light as in case of Light Activated Thyristors.
– High Voltage (forward breakover voltage), it might destroy the
thyristor.
– dv/dt.
– Gate Current.
• Most commonly employed triggering method for Thyristors is “Gate Turn-On”.
In this method, a gate pulse is used to turn-On the thyristor and a circuit used
to generate gate pulse is called firing/triggering circuit.
• Three popular firing/triggering circuits:
– R Firing
– RC Firing
– UJT relaxation oscillator
 Popular Firing/Triggering Circuits

R Triggering - Resistance firing circuit RC Triggering - RC half-wave trigger circuit

 Popular Firing/Triggering Circuits

R Triggering - Resistance firing circuit RC Triggering - RC half-wave trigger circuit

Resistive phase control RC phase control

Typical  Gate  Control  Circuits

ƒ Max.  firing  angle  =  90°

ƒ iG waveform  is  idealized,
actually  it  is  zero  after
triggering
ƒ Burglar Alarm
 Use  DC  supply
 SW  is  closed  by  opening  a door, 
window,  or  light  beam
interruption
Triggering  beyond  90°

Problems:
Minimum  Firing  Angle  is  set
by  R1  +R3 •Temperature  dependence
Maximum  Firing  Angle  is  set •Inconsistent  firing  behavior
by  the  size  of  R2 when  replacing  the  SCR
Popular Firing/Triggering Circuits
Example 1: R-Firing Circuit
Example 2: R-Firing Circuit
 Types Of Gate Firing Signals

1. DC signals
2. Pulse signals
3. AC signals
(1) DC Gating Signal From Separate Source
DC Gating signals from Same Source
 (2) Pulse Signals
1. Instead of continuous DC signal, single pulse or train of pulses is
generated.
2. It provides precise control of point at which power switches (e.g.,
SCR) is fired.
3. It provides electrical isolation between power switches (e.g., SCR)
and gate-trigger circuit. Pulse transformers and opto-couplers can
be used to provide this isolation:
• Pulse transformers:
Advantages: Not need external power for operation and very simple to use
Disadvantages: Saturate at low frequency hence it
can be used only for high frequencies and the
signal can be distorted due to magnetic coupling.
• Opto-couplers:
The rise and fall times of phototransistors are
very small.
 Thyristor/SCR Driver: Isolated Gate
• Driver
To prevent MCU from the effect of transients due to
switching, use either a pulse transformer or opto-
isolator (recommended here with MCT2E). MCU should
be coded to generate a pulse of 10us to trigger the SCR
at an appropriate time (Later). SCR 2N6403 used in
Figure 13.24 can work up to 400V and carry load current
of 16A. The BJT transistor 2N2222 is used as the SCR
gate driver to amplify the pulse current to the required
triggering gate current of 30mA (note that most MCUs
can not source this much current).
TRIAC Driver: Isolated Gate Driver
 Analog Circuit: Generate Gating Signals
• Analog circuit
Analog Circuit: PWM Signal Generation
 Analog Circuit Example for Gating Signals
• In the figure, the first stage is a control transformer for stepping down the line voltage. The secondary
of the transformer is fed to the zero-cross detector.
• In systems where the ac supply has high impedance, the non-sinusoidal current of the bridge causes
distortion of the line voltage. The result of the distortion of the line voltage waveform is multiple zero
crossings and zero-cross jitter.
– The latter means that the zero-cross frequency fluctuates. The former means that more than one zero
crossing may occur around the zero-cross of the fundamental of the line voltage. Multiple zero-cross and
zero-cross jitter could result in unsymmetrical firing of the bridge => distortion of the line voltage =>
harmonic instability.
– To prevent un-symmetry, the zero-cross detector is equipped with hysterisis comparators and a PLL. The
former eliminates multiple zero crossings. The latter stabilizes and locks the frequency of the detection pulses
to the line fundamental zero-crossings.
• The firing pulse generator utilizes the zero-cross
pulses of the previous stage to generate a periodic
ramp. The ramp is reset and commences rising with
the onset of each zero-cross pulse. This ramp is
compared with a reference voltage proportional to
the desired ignition delay angle. A short firing pulse
is generated at the moment the ramp exceeds the
reference voltage.
• The final stage is the gate drive circuit. This stage amplifies, shapes and delivers the firing pulses to
the gate of the thyristors. In the majority of applications galvanic isolation is needed between the
drive circuit and the thyristor gate. This isolation may be provided through pulse transformers, opto-
couplers, or optical fiber cable (for light triggered thyristors, LTSCR).
 Analog Circuit Example for Gating Signals
• In the lower comparator, the negative line voltage is compared with the
zero level. Thus, this comparator is high, when the line voltage is negative
and low, when the line voltage is positive. The upper comparator compares
the positive line voltage with the level of 0.7V. Thus, the output of this
comparator is high when the line voltage exceeds 0.7V and low otherwise.
• The output of both comparators is "ORed" through two diodes. The
combined output is a negative notch at the arrival of a zero crossing. The
negative notch is inverted through a transistor and a short pulse is obtained
at the output of the stage, which is synchronous to the line zero-cross as
shown in the figures below.
 Thyristor/SCR Driver: Zero-Crossing
• To determine the firing time (firing
angle), a zero-crossing circuit is
used as in Figure 13.25 or Figure
13.26 (using a transformerless
power supplies).
 Thyristor/SCR Driver: Isolated Gate
• Driver
To prevent MCU from the effect of transients due to
switching, use either a pulse transformer or opto-
isolator (recommended here with MCT2E). MCU should
be coded to generate a pulse of 10us to trigger the SCR
at an appropriate time (Later). SCR 2N6403 used in
Figure 13.24 can work up to 400V and carry load current
of 16A. The BJT transistor 2N2222 is used as the SCR
gate driver to amplify the pulse current to the required
triggering gate current of 30mA (note that most MCUs
can not source this much current).
 Thyristor/SCR Driver: Zero-Crossing
• To determine the firing time (firing
angle), a zero-crossing circuit is
used as in Figure 13.25 or Figure
13.26 (using a transformerless
power supplies).
 Thyristor/SCR Driver: Snubber Circuit
• In Figure 13.23, SCR 2N6401 has a current rating of 16A (surge load
currents up to 160A) with a maximum supply voltage of 100V. It requires
30 mA of gate current to turn on. A RC snubber circuit is advised to be
used across the SCR to avoid a large dV/dt effect (i.e., the phenomenon
that SCR may be turned on even though the voltage across the SCR is less
than forward break over-voltage when the voltage V rises very fast)