Power Diode

2.1 Introduction
A diode acts as a switch to perform various functions, such as switches in rectifiers, freewheeling
in switching regulators, charge reversal of capacitor and energy transfer between components,
voltage isolation, energy feedback from the load to the power source, and trapped energy recovery.
Power diodes can be assumed as ideal switches for most applications but practical diodes differ
from the ideal characteristics and have certain limitations. The power diodes are similar to pn-
junction signal diodes. However, the power diodes have larger power-, voltage-, and current-
handling capabilities than those of ordinary signal diodes. The frequency response (or switching
speed) is low compared with that of signal diodes.

2.2 Reverse Recovery Characteristics

The current in a forward-biased junction diode is due to the net effect of majority and minority
carriers. Once a diode is in a forward conduction mode and then its forward current is reduced to
zero (due to the natural behavior of the diode circuit or application of a reverse voltage), the diode
continues to conduct due to minority carriers that remain stored in the pn-junction and the bulk
semiconductor material. The minority carriers require a certain time to recombine with opposite
charges and to be neutralized. This time is called the reverse recovery time of the diode.

The forward current IF falls to zero at t = t1 and then continues to flow in the reverse direction
because the diode is inactive and not capable of blocking the reverse current flow. At t = t2, the
reverse current reaches a value of IRR and the diode voltage starts to reverse. After the recovery
process is completed at t = t3, the reverse diode voltage reaches a peak of VRMS. The diode voltage
passes through a transient oscillation period to complete the stored charge recovery until it falls to
its normal reverse operating voltage. The complete process is nonlinear and Figure 2.1 is used only
to illustrate the process. There are two types of recovery: soft and hard (or abrupt). The soft-
recovery type is more common.
 Fig. 2.1 Reverse recovery characteristics of diode.

𝑡𝑅𝑅 = 𝑡𝑎 + 𝑡𝑏
𝑑𝑖
𝐼𝑅𝑅 = 𝑡𝑎 1
𝑑𝑡
Reverse recovery time trr may be defined as the time interval between the instant the current passes
through zero during the changeover from forward conduction to reverse blocking condition and
the moment the reverse current has decayed to 25% of its peak reverse value IRR. Variable trr is
dependent on the junction temperature, rate of fall of forward current, and forward current prior to
commutation, IF.
Reverse recovery charge QRR is the amount of charge carriers that flows across the diode in the
reverse direction due to changeover from forward conduction to reverse blocking condition. Its
value is determined from the area enclosed by the curve of the reverse recovery current.
𝑄𝑅𝑅 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
1 1 1
𝑄𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑎 + 𝐼𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑏 = 𝐼𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑟𝑟
2 2 2
2𝑄𝑅𝑅
𝐼𝑅𝑅 = 2
𝑡𝑟𝑟

Equating eq. 1 and eq. 2

2𝑄𝑅𝑅
𝑡𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑎 =
𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑡
If tb is negligible as compared to ta, which is usually the case tb > ta), trr ≅ ta,
 2𝑄𝑅𝑅
𝑡𝑟𝑟 = √
𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑡
and

𝑑𝑖
𝐼𝑅𝑅 = √2𝑄𝑅𝑅
𝑑𝑡

If a diode is in a reverse-biased condition, a leakage current flows due to the minority carriers.
Then the application of forward voltage would force the diode to carry current in the forward
direction. However, it requires a certain time known as forward recovery (or turn-on) time before
all the majority carriers over the whole junction can contribute to the current flow. If the rate of
rise of the forward current is high and the forward current is concentrated to a small area of the
junction, the diode may fail. Thus, the forward recovery time limits the rate of the rise of the
forward current and the switching speed.

2.3 Power Diode Types

Ideally, a diode should have no reverse recovery time. However, the manufacturing cost of such a
diode may increase. In many applications, the effects of reverse recovery time is not significant,
and inexpensive diodes can be used. Depending on the recovery characteristics and manufacturing
techniques, the power diodes can be classified into the following three categories:
1. Standard or general-purpose diodes
2. Fast-recovery diodes
3. Schottky diodes

2.3.1 General-Purpose Diodes

The general-purpose rectifier diodes have relatively high reverse recovery time, typically 25 µs;
and are used in low-speed applications, where recovery time is not critical (e.g., diode rectifiers
and converters for a low-input frequency up to 1-kHz applications and line-commutated
converters). These diodes cover current ratings from less than 1 A to several thousands of amperes,
with voltage ratings from 50 V to around 5 kV. These diodes are generally manufactured by
diffusion. However, alloyed types of rectifiers that are used in welding power supplies are most
cost-effective and rugged, and their ratings can go up to 1500 V, 400 A.

Fig. 2.2 General Purpose Diode

Figure 2.2 shows various configurations of general-purpose diodes, which basically fall into two
types. One is called a stud, or stud-mounted type; the other is called a disk, press pak, or hockey-
puck type. In a stud-mounted type, either the anode or the cathode could be the stud.

2.3.2 Fast-Recovery Diodes

The fast-recovery diodes have low recovery time, normally less than 5 µs. They are used in dc–dc
and dc–ac converter circuits, where the speed of recovery is often of critical importance. These
diodes cover current ratings of voltage from 50 V to around 3 kV, and from less than 1 A to
hundreds of amperes. For voltage ratings above 400 V, fast-recovery diodes are generally made
by diffusion and the recovery time is controlled by platinum or gold diffusion. For voltage ratings
below 400 V, epitaxial diodes provide faster switching speeds than those of diffused diodes. The
epitaxial diodes have a narrow base width, resulting in a fast recovery time of as low as 50 ns.
Fast-recovery diodes of various sizes are shown in Figure 2.3.
 Fig. 2.3 Fast Recovery Diode.

2.3.3 Schottky Diodes

The charge storage problem of a pn-junction can be eliminated (or minimized) in a Schottky diode.
It is accomplished by setting up a “barrier potential” with a contact between a metal and a
semiconductor. A layer of metal is deposited on a thin epitaxial layer of n-type silicon. The
potential barrier simulates the behavior of a pn-junction. The rectifying action depends on the
majority carriers only, and as a result there are no excess minority carriers to recombine. The
recovery effect is due solely to the self capacitance of the semiconductor junction.
The recovered charge of a Schottky diode is much less than that of an equivalent pn junction diode.
Because it is due only to the junction capacitance, it is largely independent of the reverse di/dt. A
Schottky diode has a relatively low forward voltage drop.
The leakage current of a Schottky diode is higher than that of a pn-junction diode. A Schottky
diode with relatively low-conduction voltage has relatively high leakage current, and vice versa.
As a result, the maximum allowable voltage of this diode is generally limited to 100 V. The current
ratings of Schottky diodes vary from 1 to 400 A. The Schottky diodes are ideal for high-current
and low-voltage dc power supplies. However, these diodes are also used in low-current power
supplies for increased efficiency.
In Figure 2.4, 20- and 30-A dual Schottky rectifiers are shown.
 Fig. 2.4 Schottky Diode.

2.4 Silicon Carbide Diodes

Silicon carbide (SiC) is a new material for power electronics. Its physical properties outperform
Si and GaAs by far. For example, the Schottky SiC diodes manufactured by Infineon
Technologies [3] have ultralow power losses and high reliability. They also have the following
features:
• No reverse recovery time;
• Ultrafast switching behavior;
• No temperature influence on the switching behavior.

Summary
The characteristics of practical diodes differ from those of ideal diodes. The reverse recovery time
plays a significant role, especially at high-speed switching applications. Diodes can be classified
into three types: (1) general-purpose diodes, (2) fast-recovery diodes, and (3) Schottky diodes.
Although a Schottky diode behaves as a pn-junction diode, there is no physical junction; as a result
a Schottky diode is a majority carrier device. On the other hand, a pn-junction diode is both a
majority and a minority carrier diode. If diodes are connected in series to increase the blocking
voltage capability, voltagesharing networks under steady-state and transient conditions are
required. When diodes are connected in parallel to increase the current-carrying ability, current-
sharing elements.
References
[1] M. H. Rashid, Microelectronic Circuits: Analysis and Design. Boston: Cengage Publishing.
2011, Chapter 2.
[2] P. R. Gray and R. G. Meyer, Analysis and Design of Analog Integrated Circuits. New York:
John Wiley & Sons. 1993, Chapter 1.
[3] Infineon Technologies: Power Semiconductors. Germany: Siemens, 2001. www.infineon
.com/.
[4] M. H. Rashid, SPICE for Circuits and Electronics Using PSpice. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall Inc. 2003.
[5] M. H. Rashid, SPICE for Power Electronics and Electric Power. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor &
Francis. 2012.
[6] P. W. Tuinenga, SPICE: A Guide to Circuit Simulation and Analysis Using PSpice.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 1995.

Review Questions
2.1 What are the types of power diodes?
2.2 What is a leakage current of diodes?
2.3 What is a reverse recovery time of diodes?
2.4 What is a reverse recovery current of diodes?
2.5 What is a softness factor of diodes?
2.6 What are the recovery types of diodes?
2.7 What are the conditions for a reverse recovery process to start?
2.8 The diode reverse voltage reaches its peak value at what time in the recovery process?
2.9 What is the cause of reverse recovery time in a pn-junction diode?
2.10 What is the effect of reverse recovery time?
2.11 Why is it necessary to use fast-recovery diodes for high-speed switching?
2.12 What is a forward recovery time?
2.13 What are the main differences between pn-junction diodes and Schottky diodes?
2.14 What are the limitations of Schottky diodes?
2.15 What is the typical reverse recovery time of general-purpose diodes?
2.16 What is the typical reverse recovery time of fast-recovery diodes?

Practice Exercise
2.1 The reverse recovery time of a diode is trr = 5 _s, and the rate of fall of the diode current is
di/dt = 80 A/_s. If the softness factor is SF = 0.5, determine (a) the storage charge QRR, and (b)
the peak reverse current IRR.
2.2 The storage charge and the peak reverse current of a diode are QRR = 10000 _C and IRR =
4000. If the softness factor is SF = 0.5, determine (a) the reverse recovery time of the diode trr,
and (b) the rate of fall of the diode current di/dt.