Introduction

to
Computer Networks
Shailendra Tiwari

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2021
 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred

to as nodes) connected by communication
links. A node can be a computer, printer, or
any other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on
the network.

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 HISTORY AND BACKGROUND

Networks used to be proprietary

Technologies (components) were

designed for a specific purpose in mind

Certain applications for certain type

networks
Different disjointed computer networks
Multiple terminals on desk for different

uses
Application or network upgrade

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2021
 HISTORY AND BACKGROUND

Big push to make networks “open”

“Open” means “non-proprietary”

All of the various vendors could design

and manufacture network components
that were compatible and interchangeable

Was it a good thing? Why?

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2021
 HISTORY AND BACKGROUND

Benefits:
drives up computer usage
drives up software application

purchases
drives up network usage
more efficiency for businesses,

government, etc..
The idea behind having “open system”
Internetworking
Provides
9,Hides
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2021
 Overview

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2021
 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Where are the data communications?

Why data communications?
Telecommunication: communication at a

distance.
Data: information presented in whatever

form is agreed upon by the parties creating

and using the data.
Data communications: the exchange of data

between two devices via some form of

transmission
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medium such as a wire cable.7
2021
 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

 What do we need?
Hardware
Software

 Four fundamental characteristics:

1. Delivery: correct destination
2. Accuracy: correct data
3. Timeliness: fast enough
4. Jitter: uneven delay

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 Topics to be covered:

–Components
–Data representation
–Data flow

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 Components

Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication

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 Communication Tasks
 Some of the key tasks that must be performed in data
communication system.

• Transmission system utilization

• Interfacing
• Synchronization
• Error Detection & Correction
• Flow control
• Addressing
• Routing
• Recovery
• Message formatting
• Security
• Network Management
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2021
 Data Representation
 Text
Email, articles, etc
Coding (Unicode, ASCII)
 Numbers
Direct conversion
 Images
Pixels, resolution, gray scale, RGB.
 Audio
Continuous, signal conversion
 Video
Movie, continuous/discrete
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2021
 Data Flow

Thursday, December 9, 13
2021Figure : Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
 Topics to be covered:

• Distributed Processing
• Network Criteria
• Physical Structures
• Network Models
• Categories of Networks
• Internetwork

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2021
• Task is divided among multiple computers.

 Advantages of Distributed processing

• Security/Encapsulation
• Distributed Database
• Faster problem solving
• Security through redundancy

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2021
 NETWORKS

 Network criteria
1. Performance
Transit time, response time.
Throughput, delay.
2. Reliability
Failure frequency, recovery time,
Catastrophe.
3. Security
Protection.

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 Type of Connections

1.Spatially shared
2.Time shared

Figure : Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

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 Physical topology

Figure : Categories of physical topology

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 Mesh Networks

A
Partial Mesh
B C A

B C

Fully Mesh D D E
E

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 Star

Figure : A star topology connecting four stations

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 Bus

Figure : A bus topology connecting three stations

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 Ring

Figure : A ring topology connecting six stations

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 Function of a Repeater

Repeaters are used to overcome signal attenuation and distance

limitations
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 Hybrid

Figure : A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

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 Classification of Networks by
Size and Community

A company
or home A city wide A country
network wide
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2021
network 25
 Single to Multiple LANs

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Figure 1.10 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet

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 Metropolitan Area Network

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 Wide Area Network

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 WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN

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 A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs

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 Signal Transmission over a Network

modem end
office

Digital Signal
Inside the
PSTN Network

end modem
Telephone office
Exchange Copper Cable
Asynchronous
Analog Signal
RS-232C
(voice band)
Digital COM port
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Modem December 9,- Demodulator
= Modulator 32
2021
 Internetworking

• When two or more networks are connected , they

become an internetwork, or internet .
• The term internet means interconnection of
network
• While the Internet is the name of a specific
worldwide network.

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 THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects

of our daily lives. It has affected the way we
do business as well as the way we spend our
leisure time. The Internet is a
communication system that has brought a
wealth of information to our fingertips and
organized it for our use.

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 The
Internet
Today’s Internet

Hierarchical Infrastructure

International/National
ISPs

Connected by NAP –
Network Access Points
(also called peering
points
Or Internet eXchanges)

Regional ISP

(Local) ISP
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2021
ISP = Internet Service Provider
 Internet Connections

Private LAN Large/

LAN Backbone Medium
Enterprise
GW
Access via
Leased Lines
ISP Global (high speed)
GW Backbone
GW
Campus
LAN

Access via PSTN, ADSL or cable University

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2021
 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

 Protocols (rules)
1. Why do we need protocols?
2. Key elements of protocols
a) Syntax
b) Semantics
c) Timing
 Standards
1. De facto (by fact) vs. De jure (by law)
2. Organizations
3. Internet standards (Internet draft & RFC)
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 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
Network Standards Organizations
National Standards Organizations
(Generally responsible for standards within a nation and usually participate in that nation’s international
activity)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• British Standards Institute (BSI)
• French Association for Normalization (AFNOR)
• German Institute for Normalization (DIN)
Regional Standards Organizations
(Restrict their activity to a specific geographical region but generally influence standards outside their
regions)
• Committee of European Posts and Telegraph (CEPT)
• European Committee for Standardization (CEN)
• European Computer Manufacturers’ Association (ECMA)
International Standards Organizations
(Promote standards for worldwide use)
• International Standards Organization (ISO)
• International Telecommunications Union (ITU)consists of ITU-T, which is responsible for
communications, interfaces, and other standards related to telecommunications; and ITU-R, which is
responsible for allocating frequency bands in the electromagnetic spectrum for telecommunications, and
for making recommendations relating to radio communications. (Note: ITU-T is the former
CCITTConsultative Committee for International Telephony and Telegraphy.)
Industry, Trade, and Professional Standards Organizations
(Restrict their activity to member interest areas but generally influence other areas)
• Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
• Telecommunications Industries Association (TIA)
• Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
Thursday,
• Internet December
Engineering 9, (IETF)
Task Force 38
2021
 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

The Network Standardization Process

Planning Phase
• Proposals submitted by vendors or organizations are examined.
• A determination is made whether there is a need to establish a standard.
• If a need is found, the development of a project is authorized and assigned
to a technical committee.
Development Phase
• Committee prepares a working paper describing the scope of the proposed
work.
• Liaisons with other standards groups are established.
• A draft proposal of the standard is produced.
• Draft is voted on and all negative comments are addressed.
• Draft is submitted to parent organization for discussion and approval.
Approval Phase
• All members of the organization vote on draft.
• Draft is made available to the public for review.
• Draft is ultimately approved as a standard.
Publication Phase
• The new standard is published.
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 Summary

 Data communications
 Networks
 The internet
 Protocols and standards

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2021