MAULANA AZAD NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL

Environmental Science [CHY 107]

LITHOSPHERE AND SOIL POLLUTION

LITHOSPHERE

• Comprises the Earth’s crust

and part of the upper
mantle
 Rocks and minerals
• A rock is a
heterogeneous blend
of various grains (each
grain is a mineral)

• A mineral is a pure,
natural and inorganic
substance
•Amongst the common rock forming minerals Felspathoid minerals containing
less % of silica are also present which are usually allied with Feldspars

Feldspars are a group of rock-forming

Nepheline
aluminium tectosilicate minerals, containing
(Silicate of sodium
sodium, calcium, potassium or barium. The
and aluminium=>Albite
most common members of the feldspar group
are the plagioclase (sodium-calcium)
Leucite feldspars and the alkali (potassium-sodium)
(Silicate of potassium feldspars.Feldspars are also found in many
and aluminium=>Orthoclase types of sedimentary rocks.
James Hutton (1727–1797), the eminent 18th century gentleman farmer and founder
of modern geosciences, authored the concept of the rock cycle, which depicts the
inter-relationships between igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.

Hutton came to believe that the Earth was perpetually being formed; for example,
molten material is forced up into mountains, eroded, and then eroded sediments are
washed away.
 PETROLOGY

Is a branch of geology, which deals with study of rocks (Petro=rock, Logos=study)

ROCKS

IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC

-most abundant -thin veener above the Sial -proportion is similar to
-primary rocks and Sima in Oceanic that of Igneous rocks
-source is magma or and Continental Crusts -change of forms of Ig. And
lava -secondary rocks Sed. Due to
Temprature, Pressure
and Chemical Fluids
 Importance of petrology in civil Engg.

• It provides an opportunity to interpret the physical properties of individual rocks,

likewise: texture, structure, mineral composition, chemical composition etc.

• This helps in knowing the strength, durability, colour, appearance, workability etc.

• These properties are very important for CE to know because different rocks
are suitable for different purposes and no rock is ideal or best suited for all
purpose.
Granite: hard, competent, durable => suitable for foundation

Limestone: comparatively soft=> best for flooring

Marble: soft and attractive=> flooring/sculpturing etc.

Sandstone: sculpturing, wall etc.

VOLCANO: A gap in the Earth’s Crust where molten rocks and other material
escape onto the Earth’s surface
IGNEOUS ROCKS: The rocks formed through volcanic action OR The rocks which
are derived from a molten mass “magma or lava”

SOURCE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS:

Magma:Molten mass comprising most abundant elements in
earth – Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, K, H & O. Where the SiO2 is most abundant amongst all.

Temperature of Magma- 10400 to 12000 C

 Influencing Factors for Magma Flow and Formation of Igneous Rocks

• Overlying sedimentary rocks as overburden plays important role in formation

of igneous bodies eg: dykes, sills, laccoliths, bysmaliths, phacoliths, lopolith,
volcanic necks, batholiths and chonoliths.

• The beddings in the sedimentary rocks facilitates the magma to move through
or intrude/inject through the weak planes
  KINDS OF IGNEOUS ROCK
 FLUIDITY OF MAGMA

Fluidity or Viscosity of magma depends on content (%) of Silica

Silica Rich Silica poor

-known as Acidic magma -Known as Basic magma
-More viscous, so do not -Less viscous, moves faster
spreads and piles up at one and occupies larger area
place

However, the viscosity of magma is considerably influenced by temperature too. When

temperature is less-more viscous and when High temperature- less viscous.
 BROAD CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

Volcanic rocks Intermediate rocks Plutonic rocks

(Extrusive rocks) (Hypabyssal rocks) (Intrusive rocks)
-Lava or Magma flows -dykes, sills,
-Pyroclastic flows batholiths, laccoliths
etc.
 FORMS OF VOLCANIC ROCKS
Extrusive (volcanic) igneous rocks form when molten rock erupts from Earth's
interior through a volcano or fissure and cools rapidly at the surface in form of Lava
and hence it does not have any specific shape

Lava flows: On eruption lava simply flows on the surface and on the basis of surface
appearance, lava flows are described as blocky lava and ropy lava
 Block Lava: is less mobile
i.e. more viscous and has a
Rough and irregular surface.
Vesicles are few and irregular
in shape

When cools down it result into

angular, chunky texture. This causes
the lava to thicken and to break
apart as the flow continues to move
down slope. Such a texture is
referred to as a-a, probably because
of the pain inflicted on a person
trying to walk across such a flow.
Ropy Lava: is more mobile i.e.
less viscous, it has a wrinkled
but smooth and shiny surface
on cooling.
Vesicles are more in
number, small-spherical in
shape.
 PYROCLASTS OR PYROCLASTIC:
Extrusive igneous rock texture referred to as pyroclastic. This texture results from a
very explosive eruption, which sends not only lava flying through the air, but also
fragments of the volcano itself. All airborne volcanic fragments, referred to as
pyroclasts
•The rock fragments thrown out during volcanic eruption are called
Pyroclasts.

• BASED OF SHAPE AND SIZE THEY ARE CATEGORIZED

Pyroclasts come in many sizes: the smallest are called ash, slightly larger are
lapilli, and the biggest are called blocks or bombs.

ash lapilli
A large pyroclasts are known as volcanic bombs. Typical shape with head and a tail.
Bombs can result into severe damage if they strike.
Formation of rocks
 THE COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF EARTH
Core, mantle, and crust are divisions based on
composition. The crust makes up less than 1 percent of
Earth by mass, consisting of oceanic crust and
continental crust is often more felsic rock.

The mantle is hot and represents about 68 percent of

Earth’s mass. Finally, the core is mostly iron metal.
The core makes up about 31% of the Earth.
Lithosphere and asthenosphere are divisions based on
mechanical properties.

The lithosphere is composed of both the crust and the

portion of the upper mantle that behaves as a brittle,
rigid solid. The asthenosphere is partially molten
upper mantle material that behaves plastically and can
flow.
• The Earth is divided into 3 Main Layers
• Crust
– 2 types of Crust
– Oceanic – Basalt
– Continental – Granite, Oceanic Crust is denser than Continental Crust
• Mantle
• Core- The outer core, and The inner core. Each layer has a unique
chemical composition, physical state, and can impact life on Earth's
surface.
Layers of the Earth
How are layers of the Earth different from one
another?
The Earth is made up of 3 main
layers:
Crust

Mantle

Core
 Think of the layers of the
Earth like the layers of a cake.
Crust
Ocean Land

C ru st Contine
n ic ntal Cru
Ocea st
 CRUST AND LITHOSPHERE
Earth’s outer surface is its crust; a cold, thin, brittle outer shell made of rock. The crust is very thin, relative to
the radius of the planet. There are two very different types of crust, each with its own distinctive physical and
chemical properties.

Oceanic crust is composed of magma that erupts on the seafloor to create basalt lava flows or cools deeper
down to create the intrusive igneous rock gabbro. Sediments, primarily muds and the shells of tiny sea
creatures, coat the seafloor. Sediment is thickest near the shore where it comes off the continents in rivers and
on wind currents.

Continental crust is made up of many different types of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The
average composition is granite, which is much less dense than the mafic igneous rocks of the oceanic crust.
Because it is thick and has relatively low density, continental crust rises higher on the mantle than oceanic
crust, which sinks into the mantle to form basins. When filled with water, these basins form the planet’s
oceans.

The lithosphere is the outermost mechanical layer, which behaves as a brittle, rigid solid. The lithosphere is
about 100 kilometers thick. The definition of the lithosphere is based on how earth materials behave, so it
includes the crust and the uppermost mantle, which are both brittle. Since it is rigid and brittle, when stresses
act on the lithosphere, it breaks. This is what we experience as an earthquake.
The Earth’s crust is like the skin of
an apple.
Crust Ocean Land

russtt CCoonntitinneennt
n
niicc Cru
C
taall C
Oc
O ce
e a
a Crru
usstt
• Thinnest layer of the Earth
• Made up of large amounts of silicon and
aluminum
• Composed of plates on which the continents
and oceans rest. These “ride” over molten
mantle.
• Crust is part of the lithosphere.
• Two types of Crust: Oceanic and Continental
 Continental vs. Oceanic Crust
Category Continental Oceanic
Rock Type Granite Basalt
Thickness 5 – 70km (Thicker) 3 – 8 km (Thinner)
State Solid Solid
Crust Age 4 billion years old or 180 million years
Older old or Younger
Density Less Dense More Dense
Element Oxygen, Sodium, Iron, Magnesium,
Composition Silicon, Aluminum, Calcium
Potassium
 The Lithosphere
The crust and the upper layer of the mantle together make up a
zone of rigid, brittle rock called the Lithosphere.
The lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) is divided into separate plates which
move very slowly in response to the “convecting” part of the mantle.
 The Lithospheric Plates

The crust of the Earth is broken into many pieces called plates.
The plates "float" on the soft, semi-rigid asthenosphere.
Mantle Middle
Mantle
Upper Mantle

Convection
Currents

Lower Mantle
THE MANTLE

The Mantle is the largest layer of the Earth

at 2900 km thick. The middle mantle is
composed of very hot dense rock that flows
like asphalt under a heavy weight.

The movement of the middle mantle

(asthenosphere) is the reason that the crustal
plates of the Earth move.
The Asthenosphere
The asthenosphere is the semi-rigid
part of the middle mantle that flows
like hot asphalt under a heavy
weight.
 MANTLE

The two most important things about the mantle are:

(1) it is made of solid rock, and (2) it is hot.
Scientists know that the mantle is made of rock based on evidence from seismic waves, heat flow, and
meteorites.
Scientists know that the mantle is extremely hot because of the heat flowing outward from it and because of its
physical properties. Heat flows in two different ways within the Earth: conduction and convection. Conduction is
defined as the heat transfer that occurs through rapid collisions of atoms, which can only happen if the material
is solid.
Heat flows from warmer to cooler places until all are the same temperature. The mantle is hot mostly because of
heat conducted from the core. Convection is the process of a material that can move and flow may develop
convection currents.
Convection in the mantle is the same as convection in a
pot of water on a stove. Convection currents within
Earth’s mantle form as material near the core heats up.
As the core heats the bottom layer of mantle material,
particles move more rapidly, decreasing its density and
causing it to rise.

The rising material begins the convection current.

When the warm material reaches the surface, it spreads
horizontally. The material cools because it is no longer
near the core.

It eventually becomes cool and dense enough to sink

back down into the mantle. At the bottom of the
mantle, the material travels horizontally and is heated
by the core. It reaches the location where warm mantle
material rises, and the mantle convection cell is
complete.
Asthenosphere
The asthenosphere (“weak sphere”) is a soft layer
of the mantle on which pieces of the lithosphere
move. It is made of solid rock that, like putty,
flows slowly- at about the same rate your
fingernails grow.
 Convection Currents

The middle mantle "flows" because of convectioncurrents. Convection

currents are caused by the very hot material at the deepest part of the mantle
rising being less dense, then cooling becoming more dense and sinking again
--repeating this cycle over and over.
 Upper Mantle

Mantle Convection
Currents
Middle
Mantle
Lower Mantle

• Solid but capable of flow (like fudge)

Semi-Solid/Semi Liquid
• Thickest layer of the Earth 2900km (1800 miles)
• Element Composition: Magnesium, Silicon, Oxygen,
and Iron
• The hot magma rises then cools and sinks.
• These convection currents cause changes in the Earth’s
surface.
• Conveyor belt for the tectonic plates.
 Core
Outer
Core

Inner
Core
Core
At the planet’s center lies a dense metallic core. Scientists know that the core is metal for a
few reasons. The density of Earth’s surface layers is much less than the overall density of the
planet, as calculated from the planet’s rotation.

If the surface layers are less dense than average, then the interior must be denser than
average. Calculations indicate that the core is about 85 percent iron metal with nickel metal
making up much of the remaining 15 percent. Also, metallic meteorites are thought to be
representative of the core.

If Earth’s core were not metal, the planet would not have a magnetic field. Metals such as
iron are magnetic, but rock, which makes up the mantle and crust, is not. Scientists know
that the outer core is liquid and the inner core is solid because S-waves stop at the inner core.
The strong magnetic field is caused by convection in the liquid outer core. Convection
currents in the outer core are due to heat from the even hotter inner core. The heat that keeps
the outer core from solidifying is produced by the breakdown of radioactive elements in the
inner core.
 Outer
Core
• Composition: Molten (liquid) metal that is
about 4,700°C (8,500°F)
• Thickness: 2,266 km (1,400) miles
• State of Matter: Composed of the melted
metals nickel and iron (liquid)
• Located about 1,800 miles beneath the crust.
 Inner
Core
• Solid sphere made mostly of iron and has Nickel
• It is believed to be as hot as 6,650°C (12,000°F)
• Heat in the core generated by the radioactive
decay of uranium and other elements
• It is solid because of the pressure from the outer
core, mantle, and crust compressing it.
• Thickness: 1271 km (800 miles)
 What do these two images tell
us about the layers of the Earth?
 Temperature
increases as depth increases
Look at the information in the graph and table below. What’s
the relationship between depth and density/pressure?
 Density and Pressure
increase as depth increases
 Temperature,
Density and
Pressure increases
as depth increases
Which layer of the Earth has the greatest temperature,
pressure, and density?

Core
• How far have scientists
drilled into the
earth?

•7.6 miles
– Only 0.2% of the
distance to the earth’s
core
 Earth’s Layers Rap
https://youtu.be/HOd7PRJMkkQ
 WHAT IS SOIL?
Soil is a biologically active porous medium that is present on the
uppermost layer on the uppermost layer of the Earth’s crust
formed by weathering processes under various influences.
•Soil acts as a substratum for life on Earth that serves as a
reservoir of water and nutrients, a medium for the breakdown of
organic materials, and as a participant of various biogeochemical
cycles.
•The soil in any particular area evolves through a series of
weathering processes that are influenced by biological,
topographical, climatic, and geological factors.
•As studies on agriculture and geology have increased, the soil is
now considered a complex, dynamic, biogeochemical system that
is vital to the life cycles of various land vegetation and soil-
inhabiting organisms.
•Soil is one of the most important elements of an ecosystem as it
contains both biotic and abiotic components
What are the five composition of soil?
Soil is a material composed of five ingredients — minerals, soil organic matter, living
organisms, gas, and water.
 COMPOSITION OF SOIL

•Soil is composed of various factors like air, water, minerals, and different living and
non-living organic compounds.
•The entire composition of soil can be classified as biotic and abiotic components; the
abiotic component includes the non-living things of soil while the biotic component
includes the living organisms.
•In general, the abiotic component of the soil accounts for about 40-45% of the soil
volume followed by air and water that occupy 25% each with 5% covered by living
things.
•The exact composition of the soil, however, might vary from place to place with the
existing rocks of the area and the climate.
•Other factors like the quantity of vegetation, soil compaction, and water retention
capacity also influence the composition of the soil of a particular area.
•The inorganic part of the soil is composed of rocks that are slowly broken down into
smaller particles that might vary in size.
•The organic component of soil is called the humus, which is made up of living
organisms like insects or microorganisms (dead or alive) and dead animals and
plants in varying stages of decay.
Different Soil Layers

The soil is divided into various different layers top to bottom and this arrangement is
termed as the soil horizons. The categorization into various soil layers is known as the soil
profile. The soil horizons ranges from the fertile, organic upper layers composed of the top
soil and humus to the underlying rock layers composed of the subsoil, regolith and the
bedrock. Each layer is of different make up, texture, age and characteristic.
1.The O-Horizon:

The O-Horizon is the superficial or topmost layer of the soil that is primarily composed of decaying organic
matter, living organism, and fresh soil. The color of the topmost layer is normally either brown or black due to
its organic composition. It is the layer that hosts most of the roots of small vegetation cover like grass and
contains about 20% of organic matter.

2.The A-Horizon:

The A-Horizon is the second layer of the soil. It is referred to as the top-soil. It is
composed of highly decaying organic matter and minerals, and its color ranges
from gray to brown. It is the layer that hosts many plants and supports many
agricultural and grassland areas. Thus, seed germination and the growth of plant
roots take place in this soil layer. It is distinguishable by the different soil types
including loam, clay, sand, and silt. It is also the soil layer that is most vulnerable
to water and wind erosion.
3.The E-Horizon:
This is the third and the thinnest soil layer, and it is lighter in color compared to the A-Horizon. It is termed as
the eluviation layer due to the leaching of minerals. As a result, this layer is depleted of aluminum, clay,
organic compounds, and other soluble elements. It is mainly made up of silt and sand after losing most of its
minerals as they drip down through the soil.

4.The B-Horizon:
The B-horizon is the fourth layer and is also referred to as the sub-soil. It is mainly made up of large rocks,
clay, and bedrock. The color of the sub-soil is lighter than the layers above it and ranges from rust to tan. It is
also composed of minerals and little organic matter. The sub-soil accumulates a lot of clay, aluminum, iron, and
organic compounds from the layers above it from the dripping down of mineralized water through a process
known as illuviation. Hence, it is sometimes called the illuviation zone. It is the layer where the roots of big
trees end.
5.The C-Horizon:
This is the fifth layer of the soil and it also known as the regolith. Plant roots do not go through this layer
and it has very little organic matter. The color of the C-Horizon is gray and is made up of fragmented
pieces of bedrock. Also, it has compacted sediment and cemented geological material. Very little activity
is present in this layer but there may be instance of additions or losses of minerals and other soluble
compounds.

6.The R-Horizon:
The R-Horizon is the sixth and final layer of the soil. It is also known as the bedrock. The materials here are
mainly solid unweathered rock that are cemented and compacted by the weight of the overlying layers. The
color of this layer is gray with several hard rocks. This layer is beyond 50 meters from the top-soil. Some of
the rocks found here include granite, limestone, and basalt.
What is Soil moisture?

•Soil moisture is the volumetric water content of soil held within the spaces
the soil particles or soil aggregates.
•Soil moisture is of two types; surface soil moisture is the water present on
the upper layer of soil, whereas root zone moisture is the water available to
plants, generally present within the soil.
•The moisture of the soil is considered an indicator of the quality of soil and
the fertility of the soil.

https://www.farmmanagement.pro/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/soil-moisture-
620x330.jpg
What is Soil gas?

•Soil gases are different types of gases that are

present within the pores between soil particles or soil
aggregates.

•The gases found in soil include carbon dioxide,

oxygen, and nitrogen. Other atmospheric gases
include methane and radon.

•Pores in the soil are filled by gases after the water

present in such pores are evaporated absorbed by the
root.

•In the case of environmental contaminants, soil gas

might include gases diffused from landfill wastes,
mining activities, and petroleum products.
The processes of gas exchange between soil and atmosphere affect not only
the biomass production, but they are also very important from the
environmental point of view.

Independently of the gas type and transport mechanism (diffusion or

convection), there are two essential pathways of the gas exchange in the
soil–plant–atmosphere continuum: the soil pathway and the internal
pathway through the plant tissues.

Between these two “model” pathways there are numerous intermediate

situations with different relative contributions of soil- and plant-mediated
transport of gases depending on the land use and tillage practices affecting
air-filled porosity, gas diffusion coefficient, and air permeability. Soil
microbial activity depends both on oxygen and carbon dioxide
concentration, independently. The net emission or absorption of nitrous
oxide at the soil surface depends on the situation within the soil profile.
Presence of methane in soil air and its absorption or emission rate depends
on redox conditions.
What is the Soil matrix?

•Soil matrix refers to all the solid particles found in soil that
include the soil particles, organic matter, and other inorganic
materials.
•The soil particles might either be sand, silt, or clay, the
composition of which might differ from one type of soil to
another and the location.
•Organic matter found in the soil matrix is humus which is the
final stage of degradation of dead plants and animals.
•Humus might even form organic colloids with water and
other inorganic substances.
•The soil matrix determines various physical and chemical
properties of soil like water retention capacity, nutrient
content, and pH.
Properties of Soil
The properties of soil are determined by the composition of the soil, depending on
different amounts of biotic and abiotic components. The combinations of these
components determine the physical and chemical properties of soil.

A. Physical Properties
The physical properties of soil include the following:

a. Soil Texture
•Soil texture refers to the size of the soil particles that is dependent on the relative
proportions of mineral components like sand, silt, and clay.
•Soil texture is further influenced by soil porosity, infiltration, and water retention capacity.
•The texture of soil differs with soil type; sandy soil feels gritty, silt feels smooth, and clay is
sticky and mouldable.
b. Soil Structure
•The textural components of soil, including sand, silt, and clay might result in aggregates
as a result of their clumping. The aggregates further clump together to form peds.
•Information on the structure of soil gives information on the soil texture, matter content,
and biological activity.
•Soil structure is influenced by physical processes that might be improved or destroyed by
the choice of farming practices.
c. Soil Density
•The average soil particle density ranges from 2.60 to 2.75 grams per cm3, which usually
remains unchanged for a given soil.
•The soil particle density is lower for soils with high organic matter content and higher for
soil with higher mineral content.
•Soil particle density is different from soil bulk density which is always less than soil
particle density.
•Soil density usually depends on the soil texture and structure and the composition of the
soil.
d. Soil Porosity

•Soil porosity is defined by the number of pores present within the soil.
•The porosity of soil is determined by the movement of air and water within the soil.
•Healthy soils usually have more number of pores between and within soil aggregates,
whereas poor quality soils have few pores or cracks.
•Soil porosity is influenced by soil texture and structure. The pore size in soil affects the
ability of plants and organisms to access water, oxygen, and other gases and minerals.
 WHAT IS THE PROCESS OF SOIL FORMATION?

Soil minerals form the basis of soil. They are produced from
rocks (parent material) through the processes of weathering and
natural erosion. Water, wind, temperature change, gravity,
chemical interaction, living organisms and pressure differences
all help break down parent material.
PEDOGENESIS
The soil formation process is termed 'pedogenesis'. Climatic conditions are
important factors affecting both the form and rate of physical and chemical
weathering of the parent material.
What is the five importance of soil?

 Soils support roots and keep

them upright for growth.

 Soils provide plants with essential

minerals and nutrients.

 Soils provide air for gaseous

exchange between roots and
atmosphere.

 Soils protect plants from erosion

and any other destructive physical,
biological and chemical activity.
 IMPORTANCE OF SOIL SOLUTION

The term ‘soil solution‘ refers to the liquid phase of soil which consists of dissolved
substances both organic and inorganic, in ionic or in molecular form. It is the focal point of
soil chemistry. Its importance in soil development, nutrient availability and plant growth can
broadly be divided into two aspects- edaphological and pedological.

•Edaphology: The study of soil related with plant and plant growth.

•Pedology: The study of soil related with soil formation.

 Edaphological Importance
 
1. Soil solution serves as a source of nutrients for plants-
The main function of soil solution is to supply mineral nutrients to the growing plants. Plants absorbs essential
elements from soil solution for their growth. The supply of nutrients in soil solution is continuously replenished
by soil colloids as plants absorb them.

2. Soil solution serves as a source of nutrients for microorganisms-

The soil solids, particularly the fine organic and inorganic particles, release essential elements to the soil
solution, from which the micro-organisms take up nutrients for their growth and reproduction. Micro-organisms
also plays an important role on the release of nutrients through decomposition of organic matter. Besides,
dissolved oxygen in soil solution plays a vital role for life cycle or growth of micro-organisms especially
aerobic micro-organisms.

3. Soil solution is the medium where most of the chemical and biochemical reactions occur-
Many chemical and biochemical reactions are dependent on the levels of H+ and OH- ions in the soil solution,
i.e. the pH of the soil solution. The pH influence the solubility, and in turn the availability of several essential
elements (including Fe and Mn) to plants.
(CO2 present in soils produce carbonic acid which affects the pH and solubility of minerals.)
4. Soil solution is the medium for transport of nutrients as well as pollutants-
The nutrients present in soil solution move towards the roots of plants and within the soil by
mass flow, diffusion, and root interception. Some pollutants coming from different sources
contaminate the soil solution and moves along soil polluting it. (Arsenic, lead, heavy metals)

5. The concentration of soil solution controls the water availability and may cause salt
injury to plants.
i. Water availability
The potential of water molecules to move from a lower concentrated area to a higher
concentrated area by osmosis is commonly known as osmotic potential. It is also called
solute potential (Ψs). The osmotic potential is zero in distilled water.
Osmosis

In the plant cell, the concentration of cytoplasm is higher than the distilled water. So it’s
osmotic potential is always negative. Thus a difference is created between the concentration of
distilled water and plant cell. Because of this difference in the value of osmotic potential, water
will move from the soil into a plant’s root cells.

In reality, the water of soil is not distilled. Many substances especially salts are dissolved in
the soil water that is soil solution. Because of these soluble salt/s, the concentration of soil
solution increases.

If there is a lot of soluble salts in the soil solution, the difference of osmotic potential between
soil water and plant cell get reduced gradually. As a result, it becomes much more difficult for
the plant roots to absorb water from the soil.

In such a situation, plant expend energy to make osmotic adjustment that helps it to survive in
such harsh condition. But the lost energy results in reduced growth of plants.
Osmotic adjustment

It is a special type of biochemical mechanism that helps plants to acclimatize to dry and
saline conditions. Osmotic adjustment is the change in the solute substances (those are
osmotically active) in the plant cell/s. It increases the concentration as well lower the
osmotic potential of the plant cells.
Osmotic adjustment is achieved by accumulating substances including organic acids,
inorganic ions (both cation and anions), carbohydrates and amino acids.
ii. Salinity injury

Salinity may delay or even prevent the germination of seeds. As young root cells encounter
a soil solution high in salts, they may lose water by osmosis to the more concentrated soil
solution. As a result-
•Plasmolysis of cells occurs.
•The cells get collapsed.
•Metabolic activities are hampered.
•The plant is destined to death
 That is why there is a limit to the concentration of soil solution that can be tolerated by plants. The
concentration in normal fertile soils varies from 0.05-0.2 % (expressed on the weight of dry soil).

6. Soil solution removes toxic substances-

When the soil solution is more dilute, the toxic substances are leached out from the soil through
downward movement and thus the concentration of these toxic substances in the soil solution get
reduced.

7. Soil solution controls the temperature of soil-

Water has a higher capacity to retain heat. At 0°C temperature, plant generally cannot uptake
nutrients.
PEDOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE

1. Soil solution acts as an agent of weathering

The most common weathering process of soil is hydrolysis and it is influenced by the soil
water, i.e. the soil solution. In hydrolysis, water molecules split into their hydrogen and
hydroxyl components and the hydrogen often replaces a cation from the mineral structure. A
simple example is the action of water on Orthoclase (KAlSi3O8), a potassium containing
feldspar.

The potassium released is soluble and is subject to adsorption by soil colloids, uptake by
plants and removal in the drainage or leaching water.
The dissolved CO2 in soil solution reacts with water and form H2CO3 acid. Weathering is
accelerated by the presence of acids, which increase the activity of hydrogen ions (H +). The
carbonic acid (H2CO3) hastens the chemical dissolution of calcite in limestone or marble and
releases calcium ion (Ca2+).
2. Soluble salts of soil solution control the properties of saline soil.

3. Soil solution (salt movement) controls the genesis of soil (e.g. saline soil)-
The deposition of particles depend on the movement of salts. In arid regions where
precipitation is less than evaporation, salts accumulate in soil, get adsorbed on soil colloids,
and affect pH.

4. Soil solution controls the oxidation and reduction reaction occurring in soil-
When rocks containing minerals of Fe, Mn and S are exposed to soil water or soil solutions
during soil formation, the iron is easily oxidized (loses an electron) and becomes trivalent
Fe(III).
 What is the importance of soil to
humans?
Soil is one of the earth's most important natural
resources. It underpins human food
production systems, supports the cultivation of
vegetation for feed, fibre and fuel, and has the
potential to help combat and mitigate climate
change.
What is the importance of soil in agriculture
Soils supply the essential nutrients, water,
oxygen and root support that our food-
producing plants need to grow and flourish.
They also serve as a buffer to protect delicate
plant roots from drastic fluctuations in
temperature
 SOIL
The word soil has been derived from the latin word “solum” meaning upper crust of the earth.
Soil is a thin covering over the land. It is a marvellous substance -a living resources of
astonishing beauty.

It is an organized and complex mixture of weathered mineral materials from eroded rocks,
living organisms, air, water and partially decomposed organic molecules.

It is an essential component of the biosphere and must be nurtured and cultivated to bring to its
highest potential. Survival and growth of rural and urban population is governed by soil and its
nature.

In rural areas farmers are particularly concerned with soil because the nature of soil determines
what kind of crops be grown and what cultivation technique should be employed.
1.Medium for plant growth

Soils serve as the only medium for plant growth. Plants are the basis of life because they are
the primary producers which means, life on earth would be impossible without the soil. Soil
support roots and keep them erect for growth.

Soil also avail for plants vital nutrient and minerals and provides for gaseous exchange
between the atmosphere and roots. Soils also protect plants from the destructive biological,
physical, and chemical activities and equally shield them against erosion. Finally, soil ensures
moderation of moisture and holds water which can be utilized for plant growth.
2.Filtration system for surface water

The storm water after rainfall and snowmelts normally flows and discharges into surface
water bodies. However, most of it infiltrates into the ground which is a possibility because
of the various layers of the soil.

As the excess storm water infiltrates into the ground, it undergoes filtering from chemicals,
dust, and other contaminants. This process filters water and provides both plants and
humans with clean, unpolluted water required for healthy growth and good health
respectively. It is the reason underground water (aquifers) qualifies as one of the purest
water sources.
3.Habitat for several organisms and supports biodiversity

Numerous microbes (minute single cell organisms) and insects live in the soil and
depend on it for air, shelter, and food. Soils are also homers to a diverse population of
organisms including termites and worms.

Soils also support biodiversity by creating an enabling environment for plant growth

and home to many organisms. For example, insects and some reptiles lay and hatch
eggs in the soil. The decomposition of organic matter is a possibility because of the soil
which offers the required air and moisture for breaking down the materials.
4.Carbon storage and maintaining the balance of atmospheric gases

Soils help to maintain the balance of atmospheric gases by regulating the amount of
atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) by serving a carbon store.

In the process of humification where soil organisms form stable and complex organic
matter, some organic materials do not break down completely particularly in soils such as
peat because of the high water content and acidity.

As a result, there is the buildup of carbon content in the soil. Soils store about twice the
carbon quantity available in the atmosphere are about thrice the carbon quantity stored in
vegetation.

Other elements such as nitrogen and oxides are also stored, transformed and cycled in the
soil thus maintaining the balance of atmospheric gases.
 VARIOUS SOURCES OF SOIL POLLUTION
1. AGRICULTURAL SOURCES
Agricultural practices such as the use of non-organic products in crop and livestock production lead to soil
pollution. These substances include artificial chemical pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, and fertilizers, as
discussed below:

i) Pesticides, herbicides, and insecticides

The introduction of modern pesticides, herbicides, and insecticides has resulted in an increase in the use of
agricultural chemicals. These chemicals are used to control the pests, insects, weeds, fungi, and diseases that
attack crops.
Most of these chemicals are non-biodegradable, while others decompose to products that are toxic to soil. These
products seep into the ground and act on the soil, thereby changing its structure, composition, and pH.

ii) Improper use of fertilizer

Fertilizers are mostly used to correct the deficiency of soil nutrients. A soil that is deficient of potassium,
calcium, nitrogen, and sulfur, among other important macro-nutrients, should be treated with the right
fertilizer and at the right amount.
However, some farmers use fertilizers indiscriminately, leading to soil pollution. What is more, the materials
used to manufacture fertilizers contain impurities that add to soil toxicity.

For instance, the rock phosphates mineral used for the manufacture of mixed fertilizers contain traces of
Asbestos, Cadmium, and Lead, which are transferred to the fertilizer during production.

These metals are non-biodegradable and, with time, accumulate to toxic levels.

2. INDUSTRIAL SOURCES

Industrial wastes or byproducts are among the leading causes of soil pollution. They can be in the form of gas,
liquid, or solid substances. Carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide are some of
the gases produced from industrial activities that cause considerable pollution to soil indirectly.
These byproducts combine with the rainwater causing the production of acidic rain, which changes the soil pH
and, after that, affects the overall crop production. Industries also dump their solid and liquid effluents into the
soil.
3. URBAN WASTE
Most developing countries have a problem controlling the disposal of municipal garbage. The garbage is
dumped anyhow and contains wastes such as food waste, plastics, industrial wastes, e-waste, and
general household wastes.
It appears as if the urban administrators do not know that most of the non-biodegradable waste materials
could be recycled and the organic materials disposed of in areas designated for natural decomposition.
4. SEWER SLUDGE
Sewage plants also contribute to soil pollution owing to how they dispose of sewage sludge from domestic and
commercial waste. The sewage sludge is usually treated before being disposed of into land or water bodies.
When disposed of on land, the sludge can release high amounts of nutrients depending on the source that may
surpass the natural soil nutrient requirement, thus posing a risk to human health and/or the ecosystem at large.
Sewer sludge may also contain high levels of metals, further polluting the soil.
5. MINING AND SMELTING SOURCES
Mining activities cause soil pollution on a large scale. The operations cause a change of the landscape and
expose the previously undisturbed soils to the elements of weather.
Erosion of the soil containing some traces of mineral ores and fine materials around the mining areas results
in sediment loading in the water sources and drainage ways. They end up in the soil through irrigation and
flowing storm water.
There are also other hazardous materials that leak from mining activities, including harmful dust particles
that are deposited on the surrounding soils. In developing countries, the pollution levels are even higher
because activities such as gold mining are done using traditional methods, which lead to the release of
mercury and other heavy metals into rivers and neighboring lands.
Some of the polluted rivers are also used for irrigation, further leading to the pollution of the irrigated soils.

6. NUCLEAR SOURCES
Every living organism is continuously exposed to background radiation. If the levels of these radiations
exceed a given limit, they lead to disastrous effects. Radiation pollution results from two sources, that is, the
natural and anthropogenic actions.
7. DEFORESTATION
Though not a direct contributing factor to soil pollution, deforestation leads to the removal of the shield that
protects the soil against the agents of erosion. The exposed soil is easily eroded and exposed to artificial
chemical pollutants from the air, wind, and rain.

8. BIOLOGICAL AGENTS
Soil gets a large amount of human, animal and bird excreta, which constitute a major source of land
pollution by biological agents.
9. ACID RAIN

When pollutants in the air such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide mix with rain acid rain occurs, which has
been found to impact soil negatively by dissolving important nutrients and even changing the soil’s structure.
EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION

Soil pollution affects the health of humans, plants, and animals. Crops or plants grown on
such contaminated soil absorb toxic material from the soil and will decrease the agricultural
output of the land.

When animals or human beings consume these crops or plants the toxic material can pass into
their body.
Long-term consumption of these crops may cause chronic diseases that are untreatable.
children are usually more susceptible to exposure to contaminants because they come in close
contact with the soil by playing in the ground, So, it is always important to test the quality of
the soil before allowing kids to play there, especially in an industrialized area.
EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION ON HUMAN HEALTH

The contamination of soil has a major consequence on human health. Crops and plants that
are grown on polluted soil absorb most of the pollution and then pass them to humans.

Living, working, or playing in contaminated soil can lead to respiratory diseases, skin
diseases, and other health problems.

Diseases caused by soil pollution include Irritation of the skin and the eyes, Headaches,
nausea, vomiting, Coughing, pain in the chest, and wheezing.
EFFECTS ON PLANTS 

In such a short period of time, plants are unable to adapt to the soil change chemistry. Fungi
and bacteria found in the soil that bind them together start to decline, which creates an
additional problem in soil erosion.

Regular use of chemical fertilizers, inorganic fertilizers, pesticides will decrease the fertility
of the soil and alter the structure of soil.

This will lead to a decrease in soil quality and poor quality of crops. The fertility of the soil
diminishes slowly, making land unsuitable for agriculture and any local vegetation to
survive.
EFFECTS ON THE ECOSYSTEM

The soil is an important habitat for different types of microorganisms, birds, and insects.

Thus, change in the chemistry of soil can negatively impact the lives of living organisms
and can result in the gradual death of many organisms. 
 INCREDIBLE SOLUTIONS TO SOIL POLLUTION

To reduce soil pollution, there is a need to adopt the Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle strategy. Some of the solutions
to soil pollution include:

1. Reduction of artificial fertilizers and pesticides used

The use of organic means of farming can reduce soil pollution on a global scale. Bio-fertilizers and manures
reduce the need for chemical fertilizer. Pests and diseases in crops can also be controlled through the use of
biological methods, consequently reducing soil pollution.
2. Reusing and Recycling of materials
Glass containers, papers, plastics, metals, organics, petroleum products and cloth materials, industrial effluents
etc. should be recycled as well as can be reused at domestic levels in a bid to reduce soil pollution.

Reusing will limit the need for replacing the used products, thus relatively reducing the number of household
waste products such as plastics and e-waste that are sent to the landfill. Industrial wastes should be properly
treated at source. Integrated waste treatment methods should be adopted.

Recycling is another means of reducing the disposed of wastes. Some plastics and glass can be recycled to
lessen the volume of wastes and encourage environmental conservation.
3. Reforestation
Planting more tree cover is the best way of reducing soil pollution by minimizing erosion and the effects of
floods. Reforestation achieves this by providing protective ground cover for the soil.

4. Physical methods (thermal)

Contaminants can be removed by evaporation. By application of the right temperature through indirect or
direct heating, the pollutants can escape through the process of evaporation. Stream stripping is an example of
such a method where a jet of steam is injected into the contaminated soil to cause evaporation of volatile
pollutants.

However, this method is not sustainable because the release of the contaminants from the soil sends them into
the atmosphere causing air pollution. As much as it’s an alternative method of addressing the impacts of soil
pollution, emphasis should be on recycle, reuse, and reduce.

5. Chemical methods
In this method, the soil is brought into contact with the right chemical through a chemical process of restoring
the natural chemical balance in the soil. It is done regularly to ensure that the detoxification process is
complete.
6. The technique of extraction and separation
In this method, the technique of solvent extraction is used. An extracting agent is mixed with the
contaminated soil. The extraction agent is mainly an organic solvent. This method can be applied in the
removal of heavy metals in the soil, such as arsenic, copper, lead, cadmium, among others.
It can also be used in the removal of hydrocarbons and halogenated hydrocarbons. The impurities in the soil
are mainly located in a finer and coarser part of the soil, such as the hummus. Removal can be based on the
separation of the particles of soil in fraction using the principle of the gravitational pull of different particles.

7. Microbial treatment
This method can deal with various types of organic contaminants, including phenol, oil and its products,
and polychlorinated hydrocarbons. The microbes are collected, cultured, and used to treat the environment.
Before treatment, the soil is excavated and treated before standard agricultural techniques are applied .

8. Solid waste treatment

Solid wastes should be treated and discarded properly. Excess wastes by man and animals pose a disposal
problem. They should be treated before dumping them through physical, chemical, and biological means until
their hazardous levels to the environment are reduced to the minimum requirement.
Open dumping is the most commonly practiced technique. Nowadays, controlled tipping is followed for solid
waste disposal. The surface so obtained is used for housing or sports field.
9. Production of natural fertilizers
Bio-pesticides should be used in place of toxic chemical pesticides. Similarly, organic fertilizers should be
used in place of synthesized chemical fertilizers. Ex: Organic wastes in animal dung may be used to prepare
compost manure instead of throwing them wastefully and polluting the soil.

10. Go for biodegradable products

Try to use biodegradable products as much as possible. Even if they’re thrown away, they will break down
naturally and not cause any toxic chemicals to go into the soil.
11. Proper hygienic condition
People should be trained regarding sanitary habits. Ex: Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective
disposal methods.

12. Public awareness

People should be made aware through informal and formal public awareness programs on health hazards and
environmental education. Ex: Mass media, Educational institutions and voluntary agencies can achieve this.
13. Ban on toxic chemicals
The chemicals and pesticides like DDT, BHC, etc., which are fatal to plants and animals, should be banned.
Nuclear explosions and improper disposal of radioactive wastes should also be banned.
“Essentially, all life depends upon the soil …
There can be no life without soil and no soil
without life; they have evolved together”.

~ Charles E. Kellogg