Geology

Stem Ismailia
 Branches of Geology

LO1

• Lotfy Roshdy
 Earth science
Earth science includes all fields of natural science related to planet Earth.
This is a branch of science dealing with the physical and chemical
constitution of Earth and its atmosphere. (history of the universe, stars,
planets, galaxies)

• Lotfy Roshdy
 Geology Environmental science

Earth science

Astronomy

Oceanography
meteorology

• Lotfy Roshdy
 Environmental science

• Is the field of science that integrates physical, chemical, and biological

components of the environment and also the relationships and effects of
these components with the organisms in the environment to study the
environment and solving its problems. (like: pollution and global
warming)

• Lotfy Roshdy
 Astronomy
• Astronomy is a Greek word means the science that studies the laws of
the stars .
• Is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena and
everything in space either can be seen by your naked eye or not.
• It uses maths, physics and chemistry in order to explain their origin
and evolution.

• Lotfy Roshdy
 Astronomy
• Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences, as the early civilizations
used it

• Lotfy Roshdy
• LOTFY
 Meteorology
• A science that deals with the atmosphere and its phenomena and
especially with weather and weather forecasting studied the principles of
meteorology

• Lotfy Roshdy
 Climatology
• It is considered a part of meteorology science.
• Is the study of the atmosphere and weather patterns over time.
• is the study of climate and how it changes over time. This science also
helps people to understand the atmospheric conditions like:
temperature changes over time.

• Lotfy Roshdy
 Oceanography
• Is the study of the physical, chemical, and biological features of the
ocean, including the ocean's ancient history, its current condition, and its
future. ...
• Physical:(waves and ocean currents), Chemical:(Natural chemicals and
pollution), Biological:(Ocean plants and animals), Geological:(Ocean floor)
• It is the study of the ocean's plants and animals and their interactions with
the marine environment

• Lotfy Roshdy
 Geology

•  Is a branch of Earth science concerned with the solid Earth , the rocks of

which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time.
• Is the study of the structure, evolution and dynamics of the Earth and its
natural mineral and energy resources.

• Lotfy Roshdy
 Geology
Physical geology
Historical
geology Geophysics
Geochemistry Mineralogy
Sedimentology Petrology
Paleontology Geochronolog
Engineering geology crystallography
y
Hydrology
stratigraphy Economic geology

• Lotfy Roshdy
 Historical geology
• Historical geology is the study of changes in Earth and its life forms over
time. It includes sub-disciplines such as Paleontology , Paleoclimatology,
and Paleo seismology
• Historical geology is a discipline that uses the principles and methods
of geology to reconstruct the geological history of Earth.

• Lotfy Roshdy
 Paleontology
• Paleoclimatology: Is the study of ancient climates
• Paleo seismology: looks at geologic sediments and rocks, for signs of
ancient earthquakes.
• These two types are under a one branch of geology which is called
• Paleontology

• Lotfy Roshdy
 Paleontology
• It the study of fossils to classify organisms and study
their interactions with each other and their environments
(their paleoecology).
• The scientific study of life prior to roughly 11,700 years ago
• Paleontology is mutually interdependent with stratigraphy and historical
geology.
• Paleontology has played a key role in reconstructing Earth' history.

• Lotfy Roshdy
 Geochronology
• The science of age dating earth materials (rocks, minerals, fossils) and
geologic events.
• It plays a central role in all historical aspects of the planetary and Earth
sciences.

• Lotfy Roshdy
 Stratigraphy
• Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study of rock
layers and layering . It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and
layered volcanic rocks.

• Lotfy Roshdy
 Physical geology
• Physical geology is a branch of geology made up of structural geology
and dynamic geology
• Physical geology is the branch of geology that deals with geologic events
and materials occurring at the present time, or in the very near past.

• Lotfy Roshdy
 Geophysics

• It is a branch of earth science concerned with the physical processes

and physical properties of the Earth and its surrounding space
environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis.

• Lotfy Roshdy
 Geochemistry
• Geochemistry the study of the chemical composition of the earth and its
rocks and minerals.
• Geochemistry a science that deals with the chemical composition and
chemical changes in the solid matter of the earth or a celestial
body (such as the moon)

• Lotfy Roshdy
 Sedimentology
• Sedimentology deals with the study sediments, their formation,
transportation and deposition.

• LOTFY
 Engineering geology
• Engineering Geology is the application of geosciences to engineering
studies. It deals with the fields of earth science and engineering,
particularly geotechnical and geological engineering.
• It’s also called geotectonic geology.

• LOTFY
 Mining geology
• Is the process of exploration and exploitation of ore or economic minerals
from the earth
• Is an applied science which combines the principles of economic
geology and mining engineering to the development of a defined mineral
resource
• Can consider a type of Engineering Geology.
• Extraction of valuable minerals or other geological minerals from the
earth and usually create a negative environmental impact.

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 Petroleum geology
• Is the study of origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and
exploration of hydrocarbon fuels (Oil exploration).
• Petroleum is seldom found in igneous or metamorphic rocks.

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 Hydrology
• The branch of science concerned with the properties of the earth's
water, and especially its movement in relation to land.
• Hydrology is the science that encompasses the occurrence, distribution,
movement and properties of the waters of the earth and their
relationship with the environment within each phase of
the hydrologic cycle.

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 Economic geology
•  Branch of geology that deals with geological materials of economic
utility — see mining geology, petroleum geology.
• Economic geology is concerned with earth materials that can be used
for economic and/or industrial purposes. These materials include
precious and base metals, nonmetallic minerals and construction-grade
stone. 
• - concerned with earth materials of economic value.(“the application of
geology”. Like looking to a pencil as rubber, metal, graphite and wood. )

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 Mineralogy
• The branch of geology which deals with studying minerals , their
formations ,analysis, associating, physical and chemical properties,
and classification is called Mineralogy.

• LOTFY
 Petrology
• Is the branch of geology that studies rocks and the conditions under which
they form. (relies heavily on the principles and methods of mineralogy.)
• Note: Petrology has three subdivisions: Igneous, Metamorphic and
Sedimentary petrology.
•  Igneous and Metamorphic are similar in containing heavy use of
chemistry, chemical methods and phase diagram.
• Sedimentary petrology taught with stratigraphy as it concern on process of
forming sedimentary rocks.

• LOTFY
 Crystallography
• The branch of science concerned with the structure and properties of
crystals.
• Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the
arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids (see crystal structure). 

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 Pedology
• Pedology is the study of soils as naturally occurring phenomena, taking
into account their composition, distribution and processes of formation.

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 Structural geology
• Is concerned with rock deformation on both a large and a small scale.
• Is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with
respect to their deformational histories.
• It also studies the structure of Earth surface and processes like
earthquakes with physical geology.

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 Geomorphology

Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic

and bathymetric features created by physical, chemical or biological processes
operating at or near the surface of Earth .

The study of landforms, their processes, form and sediments at the surface of the
Earth {and sometimes on other planets}.

• LOTFY
 Other branches
• Optical Mineralogy: The branch which deals the optical properties of the
minerals and the behavior of light through the minerals.
• Marine geology : the study of the history and structure of the ocean
floor.
• -Marine geology has strong ties to geophysics and to physical
oceanography.
• Volcanology: A branch of science dealing with volcanic phenomena.
• Also studies the movement of molten rocks in volcanoes.

• LOTFY
 Other important notes

LO1

• LOTFY
 Importance of geology in our life.
• 1-Prospection for mineral ores as gold , iron , silver and others
• 2-Discovering the different energy resources as coal , oil , natural gas
and radioactive minerals
• 3-Searching about building materials as limestone , shale , marble ,
gypsum and others

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 Earth’s Spheres
• There are 4 majors spheres that form the Earth system.
• 1) Atmosphere: Gaseous enclose around the Earth
• 2) Hydrosphere: All waters on Earth
• 3) Biosphere: All living things on Earth.
• 4) Earth Lithosphere : All land masses

• LOTFY
 Atmosphere
• The gasses surrounding the earth. It is Composed of
• 78% Nitrogen
• 21% Oxygen,
• 1% Argon,
• Other gases such as Carbon dioxide and Water

• LOTFY
 Hydrosphere
• All the water in, on, or above the earth’s surface.
• Ex. (Oceans, Rivers, or Lakes,....etc)
• It covers 71% of Earth's surface.
• 97% sea water & 3% fresh water

• LOTFY
 Biosphere
• Includes all life on earth.
• Concentrated near the surface in a zone that extends from the ocean
floor upward for several kilometers into the atmosphere
• Earth scientists do not study living things, but understanding the
interaction between living organisms and earth processes is crucial to our
survival.

• LOTFY
 Earth Lithosphere
• The touter solid part of the earth.
• Oblate spheroid in shape.
• Earth's lithosphere chemically:
• O2= 46.6 % Si= 27,7% Al= 8,1% Fe= 5.0 % Ca= 3.65 %
Na= 2.8% Ka= 2.6 % Mg=2.1% = ~ 98%
• Siliceous Materials :O2 + Si = 74.1%

• LOTFY
 Minerals

LO2

• LOTFY
 Rocks
• Rocks are Earth materials made from minerals.
• Most rocks have more than one kind of mineral.
• Example: Granite : Potassium feldspar , Quartz , Mica
• Some are monomineralic :– Limestone (Calcite).– Rock salt (Halite).
• – Glacial ice
• Rocks are naturally occurring collections or aggregates of mineral
grains.

• LOTFY
 Minerals
• If geology was a language:
• Minerals = Letters of the Alphabet while Rocks = Words
• Mineralogy – The study of minerals
• Mineralogist – Someone who studies minerals, their composition, uses,
and properties.
• What is Mineral??????????????

• LOTFY
 F/Minerals
• Then we can call the material as a mineral or not if we found:
• 1) Minerals are solid 2) Minerals are inorganic
• 3) Minerals occur naturally
• 4) Minerals have definite chemical compositions.
• 5) Minerals have a regular three-dimensional arrangement of atoms.
This is called a crystal structure.

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 F/Minerals
• Definition of Minerals:
• is a homogeneous, naturally-occurring, solid, generally inorganic
substance with a definable chemical composition and an orderly
internal arrangement of atoms
• Six parts to the definition – each is important and necessary
• 1- Homogeneous
• Something that is the same through ,which– Cannot be broken into
simpler components.

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 F/Minerals
• 2-Naturally Occurring (They are not manufactured.)
• Minerals are the result of natural geological processes
• Note: Man-made minerals are called synthetic minerals (e.g. industrial
• diamonds)
• 3- Solid (not gas or liquid.)
• Minerals must be able to maintain a set shape nearly indefinitely.
• – liquids are not minerals

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 F/Minerals
• 4- Definable Chemical Composition.
• A mineral can be described by a chemical formula
• – Quartz: SiO2
• – Biotite: K(Mg, Fe)3
• (AlSi3O10)(OH)2
• – Diamond: C

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 F/Minerals
• 5- Orderly Arrangement of Atoms. (Crystal shape)
• Minerals have a fixed atomic pattern that repeats itself over a large
• Region relative to the size of atoms – Crystal solid, or crystal lattice:
• The organized structure of a mineral
• EX– A glass is not a mineral; no organized structure

• LOTFY
 F/Minerals
• Glass is not a
mineral:
• No organized
molecular structure
• Minerals:
• Organized molecules

• LOTFY
 F/Minerals
• 6-Generally Inorganic (That means they are not alive and never have
been.)
• Organic: A substance composed of C bonded to H, with varying
• amounts of O, N and other elements. C alone is not organic!
• • Only a few organic substances are considered minerals, all other
• minerals are inorganic

• LOTFY
 Some information of minerals
• Early humans used red hematite & black manganese oxide to make
cave painting.
• In the Stone age, people made tools out of hard fine grained rocks
• I the Bronze age, people discovered how to combine copper& tin from
minerals into metallic mixture (alloy) called bronze
• In the Iron age, people made tools of iron which is contained minerals
like hematite (Fe2O3) & Magnetite (Fe3O4)

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 Types of minerals
• They are two types of minerals according to there composition which are:
• Native Minerals: They are minerals which consists of only 1 element
• Ex- Gold(Au) -Iron(Fe) -Copper(Cu) -Silver(Ag), Combination
Minerals: Most minerals are combination of 2 or more elements.
• Ex- Quartz which is made up of silicon and oxygen (SiO2)
• Calcite which is made up of calcium, carbon and oxygen
(CaCO3)

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 Uses of some Minerals
• 1) Feldspar making Porcelain
• 2) Calcite making Cements
• 3) Gypsum making Plaster and Wall board
• 4) Iron & Manganese making Steel, Cars, Trains by
combining with other metals

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 Some important notes (Ores)
• 1)Rocks that contains Valuable minerals are called Ores
• To remove the valuable minerals, the ore first has to be mined
• After being mined, the valuable mineral is then separated from the rest of
the ore.
• This is done through processes like crushing, sieving, melting, or settling
through a liquid.
• Most metals and many important nonmetals are refined from ores

• LOTFY
 F/Some important notes
• -Valuable minerals are not found evenly in Earth’s crust
• 2)Granite consists of mostly large crystals of (Potassium) Feldspar,
Quartz and Mica
• 3)Basalt consists of mostly tiny crystals of (Plagioclase)
Feldspar ,Pyroxenes and olivines
• 4)There are two methods of mining processes which are Surface mining
& underground mining.

• LOTFY
 Chemistry and structure of minerals
• Minerals consist of atoms of one or more chemical elements.
• The atoms in minerals occur in a regular three-dimensional
arrangement.
• The atoms in almost all minerals are in the form of ions. The ions in a
mineral are packed together in a way that brings the ions as close
together as possible.

• LOTFY
 F/Chemistry and structure of minerals
• As a result, positively charged ions are in close contact with negatively
charged ions.
• Objects with unlike electric charges are attracted to each other.
• These forces of attraction hold the mineral together as a solid
• Then we concluded a very important note that is :Minerals are solid
because of their attraction between ions. (Exam Question)

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 Properties of Minerals
• Identifying Minerals: You can identify mineral by knowing its properties
which are:
• 1)Hardness 2)Luster 3)Streak 4)Specific Gravity 5)Cleavage
• 6)Crystal shape 7) Color And other properties like:
• 1)Malleable & Ductile 2)Chemical Reaction to acids as (Carbonate
(Calcite)) 3)Radioactivity (by instrument called Geiger counter)
• 4)Magnetic 5)Fluorescent as (Fluorite) 6)Phosphorescent

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 1) Hardness
• Hardness is the resistance of a mineral to scratching
• Mohs scale is a scale which used by mineralogists to measure the hardness
of minerals.
• 1) Talc 5)Apatite
• 2)Gypsum 6)Orthoclase /Feldspar
• 3)Calcite 7)Quartz 8)Topaz
• 4)Fluorite 9)Corundum 10)Diamond

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 F/1) Hardness
• Hardness of some materials on Mohs Scale
• 1)Fingernail: about 2.5 2)Copper coin: about 3.5

• 3)Iron nail: about 4.5

• 4)Knife blade: a little more than 5
• 5)Window glass, Masonry nail: 5.5 6)Steel file: 6.5

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 F/1)Hardness
• Note: Each mineral in the scale scratches minerals earlier in the scale
and is
• scratched by minerals later in the scale.
• Diamond (with a hardness of 10) is the hardest natural substance
known.
• The mineral talc (with a hardness of 1) is one of the softest.

• LOTFY
 F/1)Hardness
• The way to test the hardness of an unknown mineral is to scratch it with
a material of known hardness.

• If the mineral is scratched, it is not as hard.

• If the unknown mineral scratches the known material, then it is

harder.
 2)Luster
• Luster describes the way a mineral reflects light. Luster is either
metallic or nonmetallic.
• Minerals with metallic luster look like polished metal.

• Pyrite (FeS2) (Hardness 6-6.5) have metallic luster.

• Galena (Pbs) (hardness 2.5-2.75) have metallic luster.

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 F\2)Luster
• Nonmetallic lusters are often described as glassy (or vitreous), waxy,
• pearly, earthy, or dull.
• Quartz and calcite have a vitreous (glassy) to greasy luster.
• Feldspar has a pearly luster.

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 3)Streak
• Streak is the color of the powdered mineral.
• To determine the streak of a mineral, scratch it across a piece of unglazed
porcelain tile (a streak plate).
• Many minerals have a distinctive streak color. Streak color may be
different from the color of the mineral sample.
• For example, hematite is often dark gray in color, but it always has a
red streak.

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 4)Specific gravity
• Specific gravity is a ratio of the weight of the mineral to the weight of
an equal volume of water. (Water has a specific gravity of 1)
• Galena is a mineral that contains lead. It has a specific gravity of about
7.5.
• Most nonmetallic minerals have specific gravities less than 3 as:
• Quartz (2.6) Calcite (2.7) Feldspar (2.6)

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 5)Cleavage
• Cleavage: is when the mineral breaks as a reason of weakness.
• Many minerals have cleavage, This means that when they break, they
tend
• to break along regularly oriented planes of weakness.
• Cleavage planes form along planes of weak atomic bonds in the mineral.
• For example, mica splits easily into sheets because there are very weak
atomic bonds between the layers of atoms in mica.

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 F/5)Cleavage
• Cleavage of some Minerals:
• 1)Mica splits into sheets, Muscovite mica has one direction of cleavage.
• 2)Feldspar has two directions of cleavage.
• 3)Halite (NaCl) & Calcite (CaCO3) have three directions of cleavage
(They break into three dimensions at nearly right angles)(Cubic
cleavage)
• 4)Quartz have no cleavage as it breaks into irregular shape , quartz
often shows a curved surface called conchoidal fracture.

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 6)Crystal shape
• When minerals grow in unconfined spaces, they usually have a regular
crystal shape.
• EX-
• Quartz crystals grow as six-sided (hexagonal) columns with pointed
tops.
• Garnets often grow in regular twelve-sided shapes. These shapes are
called dodecahedra.

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 7)Color
• Color is usually the first thing you notice about a mineral. However, it is
the least reliable property in identifying a mineral. Many minerals have
different colors depending on what impurities are present.
• Corundum (Al2 O3 ) is sometimes tinted red by small amounts of
chromium. These crystals are known as Rubies
• Corundum (Al2 O3 ) is sometimes tinted blue by small amounts of
titanium. These crystals are known as Sapphire.

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 F/7)Color
• Quartz is usually transparent. However, it can be many other colors,
depending on what impurities are present.
• Some Notes:
• Some minerals tarnish or change color when their surfaces are exposed
to air.
• Many minerals have the same color as others.

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 F/7)Color
• Many prospectors in the gold rush days were fooled by pyrite.
• Pyrite is known as fool’s gold. It has a metallic luster and a color
similar to gold. However, it has a lower specific gravity than gold. It is
also brittle (gold is malleable), and leaves a black streak on a white
porcelain tile. (gold has a gold-colored streak)

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 Other Properties of minerals
• Some minerals have special properties. These make them easy to
identify. They also make these minerals useful for specific purposes.
• 1)Malleable & Ductile 2)Chemical Reaction to acids as
• (Carbonate (Calcite))
• 3)Radioactivity (by instrument called Geiger counter)
• 4)Magnetic 5)Fluorescent as (Fluorite) 6)Phosphorescent

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 F/Other properties of minerals
• 1)Malleable & Ductile:
• This means that under pressure they can be changed in shape without
breaking.
• 2) Chemical Reaction to acids as (Carbonate (Calcite))
• Acid breaks down the chemical bonds in the carbonate.
• Acid is a good test to identify the calcium carbonate mineral calcite.

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 F/Other properties of minerals
• 3) Radioactivity (by instrument called Geiger counter)
• The atoms of radioactive materials are not stable, They can be detected
with a Geiger counter. (This an instrument that detects radiation.)
• 4) Magnetic
• Some minerals are magnetic. Magnetite is an important ore of iron. It
is magnetic.

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 F/Other properties of minerals
• 5)Fluorescent as (Fluorite)
• Some minerals are fluorescent. They change ultraviolet light to other
wavelengths. Fluorite is one example.
• 6)Phosphorescent
• A few minerals are phosphorescent. They store light energy. Then they
slowly release it.

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 Identifying
Minerals
• Zoom and Read!!!!!!!

• Important!
Earth & building materials
& Types of Cements

LO3

• LOTFY
 Building Materials
• Many types of crushed stone : several types of rock such as limestone, granite,
trap rock , marble, scoria, basalt, dolomite, or sandstone used for crushed stone
• Limestone:
• Composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
• It is the rock type most commonly used to make crushed stone
• Limestone can be used to make cement
• It is used to make agricultural lime and for acid neutralization

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 F/ Building Materials
Granite and Trap Rock
“Granite”
is the layman's name used for any light-colored igneous rock like
Granite, granodiorite, diorite, and rhyolite
"Trap rock"
is a layman's name used for any dark-colored igneous rock like Basalt,
peridotite, diabase, and gabbro

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 F/ Building Materials
Granite and trap rock are the second and third most commonly used types of
rocks for producing crushed stone
They are superior to limestone when used in acid waters and soils

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 F/ Building Materials
• Dolomite and Dolomitic Limestone:
• Dolomite and limestone are very similar rocks. Dolomite is a calcium
magnesium carbonate (CaMg (CO3)2), while limestone is a calcium
carbonate (CaCO3)
• Limestone is more effective for making cement and for neutralizing acids.
Dolomite has a Mohs hardness of 4 compared to limestone with a Mohs
hardness of 3

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 F/ Building Materials
• Dolomite, dolomitic limestone, and limestone occur together in the rock units
mined at a single quarry
• Sandstone and Quartzite:
Sandstone and quartzite are composed primarily of quartz, a very durable
mineral, but each has its drawbacks in the construction industry that limits its use
 Sandstone is generally composed of sand grains cemented together by calcite,
clay, or silicate minerals that have precipitated between the sand grain

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 F/ Building Materials
The cement usually does not completely fill all of the voids between
the sand grains, leaving a porosity that typically ranges between 5 and
30%. This pore space allows the rock to absorb water.
That water will expand in volume by up to 9% every time it freezes.
Over the course of many freeze-thaw cycles, the forces of this
expansion can dislodge grains and break the rock

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 F/ Building Materials
Quartzite is a sandstone that has been metamorphosed. The process of
metamorphism heats and compresses the rock and often causes the
sand grains to become welded together
Quartzite has a Mohs hardness of 7
Slate:
slate has two lines of break: the ability "Cleavage and grain" which
make it possible to split the stone into thin sheets.

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 F/ Building Materials
• When broken, slate retains a natural appearance while remaining
relatively flat and easy to stack
• Slate can be made into roofing slates

• Steel: an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is

widely used in construction, Because of its high tensile strength and low
cost

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 F/ Building Materials

Steel's base metal is iron, which is able to take on crystalline forms

like (Allotropic forms): it is the interaction of those allotropes with the

alloying elements, primarily carbon, that gives steel and cast iron their

range of unique properties.

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 Earth Materials
• The type of materials available locally will of course vary depending
upon the conditions in the area of the building site.
• In many areas, indigenous stone is available from the local region,
such as limestone, marble, granite, and sandstone. It may be cut in
quarries or removed from the surface of the ground (flag and
fieldstone). Ideally, stone from the building site can be utilized.

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 F/Earth Materials
• Depending on the stone type, it can be used for structural block,
facing block, pavers, and crushed stone. Most brick plants are located
near the clay source they use to make brick. Bricks are molded and
baked blocks of clay.
• Brick products come in many forms, including structural brick, face
brick, roof tile, structural tile, paving brick, and floor tile

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 F/Earth Materials
• Caliche: is a soft limestone material that is mined from areas with
calcium-carbonate soils and limestone bedrock. It is best known as a
roadbed material, but it can be processed into an unfired building
block, stabilized with an additive such as cement. Other earth materials
include soil blocks typically stabilized with a cement additive and
produced with forms or compression.

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 F/Earth Materials
• Rammed Earth: is more often considered for use in walls, although it
can also be used for floors.
• Rammed earth and caliche block can be used for structural walls,
and offer great potential as low-cost material alternatives with low
embodied energy. In addition, such materials are fireproof

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 F/Earth Materials
• Guidelines for Earth materials:
Stone: construction practices are fairly standard. We do not recommend
any stone applications that would require non-traditional methods. Attention
needs to be paid to the load capacity of foundations and footings due to the
excessive weight of the material. Veneers need non-combustible support
such as concrete grade beams or footings. Pay particular attention to grade
beams when designing interior stone wall applications. Anchoring of veneers
must follow Uniform Building Code (UBC) guidelines.

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 F/Earth Materials
Brick:
Brick has value as a recyclable material. Used brick, available through local
salvage companies, is often desired for its weathered, antique appearance. In
addition, brick seconds or brick that is damaged can be crushed and recycled
and either returned to the manufacturing process to make more brick or
used as a landscaping material in its crushed form. Some American brick
manufacturers are making brick with sewage sludge. Sludge material is mixed
with clay normally used in the manufacturing process

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 F/Earth Materials
• The resulting brick is equally attractive and strong. Another alternative
material for brick production is petroleum contaminated soils. Such
soils, when combined with clay and fired at very high temperatures,
yield brick that is free from hydrocarbon contamination

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 Types of Cement
• 1. Ordinary Portland Cement 9. Oil Well Cement
• 2.Rapid Hardening Cement 10. High Alumina Cement
•3.Sulphate Resisting Cement 11. Hydrophobic cement
•4.Portland Slag Cement (PSC) 12. Air entraining cement
•5.Quick Setting Cement 13. Expansive cement
•6.Low Heat Cement
•7.Portland Pozzolana Cement
•8.Coloured Cement: White Cement

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 F/Types of cement
• 1) Ordinary Portland Cement
• The manufacture of OPC is decreasing all over the world in view of the popularity
of blended cement on account of lower energy consumption, environmental
pollution, economic and other technical reasons.
Uses; Residential buildings, Commercial buildings
• Educational building, For most masonry work
 F/Types of cement
•2) Rapid Hardening Cement
•As the name indicates it develops strength rapidly and as such it may be more
appropriate to call it as high early strength cement. (Where formwork is required to be
removed early for re-use elsewhere, Road repair works, In cold weather concrete ).
• Uses;
• Prefabricated concrete construction, Road works
• Construction of pavement

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 F/Types of cement
• 3) Sulphate Resisting Cement
•To remedy the sulphate attack, the use of cement with low C3A content is found to
be effective. (Concrete to be used in the marine condition, in foundation and
basement, where the soil is infested with sulphates; construction of sewage
treatment works).
• Uses;
• Foundation works, Sewage treatment works
• Marine structures , Bridge piers, etc.

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 F/Types of cement
• 4) Portland Slag Cement (PSC)
•Portland slag cement is obtained by mixing Portland cement clinker, gypsum, and
granulated blast furnace slag. ( Reduced heat of hydration, Refinement of pore
structure, Reduced permeability)
• Uses;
• Marine structures
• Sewage pipes, Dam construction etc.

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 F/Types of cement
• 5) Quick Setting Cement
•The early setting property is brought out by reducing the gypsum content at the time
of clinker grinding. It is used mostly in underwater construction where pumping is
involved.
• Uses; Under water concrete structures
• Cold and rainy weather conditions
• Higher temperature where water evaporates easily
• Tunneling, rock bolt mining, etc.

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 F/Types of cement
• 6) Low Heat Cement
• Uses of this type
• Mass concrete constructions
• Gravity dams
• The low heat of hydration prevents the cracking concrete due to heat

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 F/Types of cement
• 7) Low Heat Cement
•In PPC, costly clinker is replaced by cheaper pozzolanic material - Hence
economical.
•Soluble calcium hydroxide is converted into insoluble cementitious products
resulting in improvement of permeability. Hence it offers, around durability
characteristics, particularly in hydraulic structures and marine construction.
•

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 F/Types of cement
•It generates reduced heat of hydration and that too at a low rate.
•Reduction in permeability of PPC offers many other around advantages.
• Uses;
• Marine structures
• Hydraulic pipes
• Sewage pipes
• Dam construction

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 F/Types of cement
• 8) Colored Cement: White Cement
• For manufacturing various colored cement either white cement or grey Portland
cement is used as a base. The use of white cement as a base is costly. With the use
of grey cement, only red or brown cement can be produced.
• Uses; Decorative works
• Traffic barriers, Tile grouts
• Swimming pools, Roof tiles patching materials etc

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 F/Types of cement
•9) Oil Well Cement
•It is likely that if oil is struck, oil or gas may escape through the space between the
steel casing and rock formation. Cement slurry is used to seal off the annular space
between steel casing and rock strata and also to seal off any other fissures or cavities
in the sedimentary rock layer.
• Uses; Oil well cement is used for cementing work in the drilling of
• oil wells where they are subject to high temperatures and pressures.

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 F/Types of cement
• 10) High Alumina Cement
• The uses of this type of cement ;
• High temperature, frost, and acid actions like
• Workshops
• Refractory etc.
 F/Types of cement
• 11) Hydrophobic cement
• These cements are used in the construction of dams, spillways, underwater
constructions. Used in the structures that are exposed to rain or rain
puddling, such as green roofs, other kinds of roofs, parking structures, and
plazas. Used in drainage system works and manholes.

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 F/Types of cement
• 12) Air entraining cement
• The primary use of air-entraining concrete is for freeze-thaw resistance.
The air voids provide pressure relief sites during a freeze event, allowing
the water inside the concrete to freeze without inducing large internal
stresses.

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 F/Types of cement
• 13) Expansive cement
• Uses of this type
• Hydraulic structures
• Pre-stressed concrete components
• Sealing joints and grouting anchor bolts

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 Igneous Rocks

LO4

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 Igneous Rocks
• Many igneous rocks are very resistant to weathering, and thus erode more
slowly than other kinds of rocks.
• All igneous rocks are made of interlocking crystals of minerals. The minerals
have cooled and crystallize out of magma and called Lava. (Recall that
magma is molten rock.)
• These crystals make the rocks very resistant to physical weathering and
erosion.
• Minerals are the building blocks of igneous rocks and all other rocks as well.

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 F/Igneous Rocks
• There are thousands of kinds of minerals in Earth’s crust. However,
only six are common in igneous rocks. They are quartz, feldspars,
micas, pyroxenes, amphiboles, and olivines. These are all called silicate
minerals.
• Their basic structure is very tightly bonded units made up of silicon
and oxygen (called silica) . These units are bonded less strongly to
various other atoms. (Quartz are listed in the plural form.)

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 F/Igneous Rocks
• Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling of magma.
• Suppose that you could drill a hole very deep into Earth. You would
find that Earth’s temperature initially rises by about 30°C with every
kilometer of depth. This rate of increase slows down at deeper depths.
At a depth of 100 to 350 km, the temperature is high enough for large
volumes of rock to melt and form magma at certain times and places.
• Nearly all substances expand when they are heated

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 Types Igneous Rocks
• When rock is melted into magma, its volume increases by about 10
percent. This makes the magma less dense than the surrounding rock.
Like a hot-air balloon that rises through less dense surrounding air,
magma rises toward Earth’s surface.
• Some magmas cool and solidify into igneous rock before they reach
the surface, The rock that forms in this way is called intrusive igneous
rock. (Plutonic rocks)

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 F/Types Igneous Rocks
• The magma “intrudes” into solid rock that was already there. In some
places, magma reaches the surface before it solidifies into igneous rock.
• Magma that reaches the surface is called lava. Rock that is formed
when lava cools is called extrusive igneous rock. (Volcanic rocks).
The lava is “extruded” onto Earth’s surface, like toothpaste from a
tube.
• The appearance of an igneous rock reveals whether or not it formed below
or at Earth’s surface.

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 Texture of Igneous rocks
• The crystal size of an igneous rock largely depends on how fast the
magma cools.
• When magma cools very slowly, only a small number of crystals are
formed in a given volume of the magma. However, these crystals have
plenty of time to grow large. The resulting igneous rock is coarse
grained. The mineral grains are usually several millimeters, or even a
few centimeters, in size. (Granite)

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 F/Texture of Igneous rocks
• On the other hand, when magma is extruded at Earth’s surface and cools
very rapidly, a large number of crystals are formed in a given volume
of the magma. However, there is not enough time for them to grow
large. The resulting igneous rock is very fine grained. (Basalt)
• The mineral grains are usually too small to be seen without a
magnifying glass.

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 F/Texture of Igneous rocks
• If the lava cools even more quickly, a glassy-textured rock called obsidian can
form. Obsidian forms when magma cools so quickly that crystals do not have
time to form.
• -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• Obsidian: Glassy-textured ,Basalt: Fine-grained textured (Dark rocks)
• Scoria: Frothy textured (Dark rocks)
• Granite: coarse-grained textured , Pumice: Frothy textured (Light rocks)
• All above rocks are extrusive igneous Except Granite is intrusive.

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 Chemical and Mineral Composition
• The color of an igneous rock is due mainly to its chemical makeup.
Therefore, the color depends on what minerals the rock contains.
• Think of the common minerals found in igneous rocks. Quartz,
potassium feldspar, and muscovite mica are light in color.
• Igneous rocks with high percentages of these minerals tend to be light
in color

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 F/Chemical and Mineral Composition
• They are the most common minerals in igneous rocks found in the continental
crust.
• Pyroxenes, amphiboles, plagioclase feldspar, biotite mica, and olivines are
darker in color. Igneous rocks with high percentages of these minerals tend
to be dark in color. They are typically black to dark green
• Igneous rocks that consist mostly of minerals such as quartz, potassium
feldspar, and muscovite mica are lighter in color.
• This is because these minerals contain a lot of silica (silicon and oxygen).

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 F/Chemical and Mineral Composition
• They contain little iron and magnesium.
• Igneous rocks containing these minerals are usually white, light gray, or
pink. These rock types, whether intrusive or extrusive, are associated
with lithospheric plates
• They are found where the plates are moving together and magma is
formed. Magmas rich in silica do not flow very easily. They usually
cool before they reach Earth’s surface. forming granite

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 F/Chemical and Mineral Composition
• Granites found at Earth’s surface today formed below the surface
long ago. They have been exposed by uplift and erosion.
• Uplift is the slow raising of the crust by large-scale forces acting within
Earth.
• . If the same magma (Magma rich in Silica which do not flow eaisly)
reaches the surface, it cools quickly. It forms an extrusive igneous rock
called Rhyolite.

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 F/Chemical and Mineral Composition
• Basalt, is the most common rock on Earth’s surface. It is the major
rock found in the oceanic crust. Basalt is formed where lithospheric
plates are spreading apart.
• Here magma is rising through a mantle hot spot. These rocks are
common in the Hawaiian Islands and Iceland.
• Gabbro is an intrusive igneous rock that contains minerals rich in iron
and magnesium.

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 F/Chemical and Mineral Composition
• Gabbro is the coarse-grained counterpart of basalt. It is common deep
in the oceanic crust
• The rocks are made of a mix of minerals that contain iron and
magnesium, They are also mixed in color. Two examples are andesite
and diorite. Andesite is an extrusive rock. Diorite is the corresponding
intrusive rock.
• Andesite is named for the Andes Mountains. It is abundant in that area.

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 F/Chemical and Mineral Composition
• Diorite often forms where an oceanic lithospheric plate is being
subducted beneath a continental lithospheric plate.
• Explosive Volcanic Eruptions
• Some magmas have a high content of dissolved gases, such as water
vapor and carbon dioxide. This is especially true of magmas with high-
silica content. When these magmas rise up near Earth’s surface, the
dissolved gases tend to bubble out of the magma.

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 F/Chemical and Mineral Composition
• This happens because the pressure is so much lower at the surface than
deep in Earth. Sometimes the pressure is released suddenly by an
explosive volcanic eruption.
• Pumice is a volcanic rock that consists mainly of bubble holes. There
are only thin walls between the holes. Because of its very low density,
pumice floats on water.

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 Sedimentary Rocks

LO5

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 Sedimentary Rocks
• Igneous rocks are the most common rocks on Earth, but because most
of them exist below the surface you might not have seen too many of
them.
• 75% of the rocks exposed at the surface are sedimentary rocks.
• volume About %5 of earth crust rocks.
• What is the sediment?
• Sediments are loose materials such as rock fragments, mineral grains,
and bits of shell that have been moved by wind, water, ice, or gravity.

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 F/Sedimentary Rocks
 Sediments come from already-existing rocks that are weathered and
eroded.
 Sedimentary rock forms when sediments are pressed and cemented
together, or when minerals form from solutions.
• Except for a thin layer of soil and very young sediments at Earth’s surface,
Earth’s crust is made of solid bedrock. Sediments are loose materials that
have not been formed into rocks. The crust consists of a very wide range of
rock types. However, sedimentary rocks are by far the most common type
in the upper crust.

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 F/Sedimentary Rocks
• Bedrock : solid rock that is connected continuously down into Earth’s
crust, rather than existing as separate pieces or masses surrounded by
loose materials
• sedimentary rock: a rock, that results from the consolidation or
lithification of sediment
• There are three major types
• 1) clastic rock, such as sandstone , 2) chemical rock, such as rock salt.
• 3) organic rock such as coal.

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 F/Sedimentary Rocks
• strata: layers of rock, visually separable from other layers above and below
that form the continents
• --Erosion (Weathering ,transporting ,and Deposition)
• Weathering is any process which breaks rocks into sediments.
 Erosion involves:
 1- weathering 2- transporting =the removal of rock. 3- deposition
 = (( When an agent of erosion – water, wind, or gravity – loses energy, it
drops the sediments..))

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 F/Sedimentary Rocks
• Erosion
• (Weathering, transferring, and Deposition)
• Note: Deposition= Sedimentation

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 Compaction and Cementation
 Compaction and cementation change sediments into sedimentary rocks.

 Compaction : is a process that squeezes, or compacts, sediments

 Compaction is caused by the weight of sediments

 Cementation takes place when dissolved minerals are deposited in the

tiny spaces among the sediments.

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Lithification =compaction + cementation

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 F/ Lithification
• Note:
• Lithification= Solidification

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 Stacked Rocks
• Sedimentary rocks often form as layers.

• The older layers are on the bottom because they were deposited first.
• Sometimes, forces within Earth overturn layers of rock, and the oldest
are no longer on the bottom.

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 Classifying Sedimentary Rocks
 Sedimentary rocks are classified by their composition and by the
manner in which they formed.
 The three types of sedimentary rocks are
 Detrital ( Clastic )
 Chemical
 Organic.

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 (Clastic )Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
 Detrital sedimentary rocks are made from the broken fragments of
other rocks.
 Clastic sedimentary rocks are made of fragments, called clasts.
 The clasts are eroded from other rocks.
 Conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, claystone, and shale
are clastic sedimentary rocks
• Note: Fragments = Clasts = sediments.

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 F/(Clastic )Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
Clasts are classified according to their size.
 The smallest clasts are too small to see without a microscope. They are
called clay. Clasts with sizes between clay and sand are called silt.
 1-Claystone consists of clay-sized particles.
 2-Siltstone consists of silt-sized particles.
 3-Mudstone consists of a mixture of silt-sized and clay-sized particles.
 When a claystone or mudstone breaks into small, flat chips, it is often
called shale.

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 F/(Clastic )Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
 Sandstone is made of sand-sized particles.
 (2mm-62microm)
 Conglomerate is made of gravel-sized particles. The size of the
 particles ranges from small pebbles to large boulders. > 2mm
 The particle size usually reflects the strength of the medium that
carried the sediment.

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 F/(Clastic )Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
 Pieces of gravel are much larger than tiny clay particles.
 Therefore, faster flows of water are needed to move them from where
they originate to where they are deposited.
• --Weathering & Erosion helps to get the materials to make detrital
sedimentary rocks.
• When rock is exposed to air, water, or ice, it breaks down chemically
and mechanically.

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 Factors helps in formation of (Clastic)
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
• --F/Weathering & Erosion in clastic sedimentary rocks.
• This process, which breaks rocks into smaller pieces, is called
weathering.
• The movement of weathered material is called erosion.
• --Compaction helps form detrital sedimentary rocks
• Where sediments are deposited, layer upon layer builds up.

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 F/Factors helps in formation of (Clastic)
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
• Pressure from the upper layers pushes down on the lower layers.
 If the sediments are small, they can stick together and form solid rock.
This process is called compaction.

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 F/Factors helps in formation of (Clastic)
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
• Cementation also helps form detrital sedimentary rocks.
 If sediments are large, like sand and pebbles, pressure alone can’t make
then stick together
• Large sediments have to be cemented together.
• As water moves through soil and rock, it picks up materials released
from minerals during weathering.
• The resulting solution of water and dissolved materials moves through
open spaces between sediments.

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 F/Factors helps in formation of (Clastic)
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
• Clastic sediments usually turn into solid rock deep under the surface.
This usually occurs after many hundreds, or even thousands, of meters of
burial
• --Clastic(Detrital) Sedimentary Rock Classification
 Clastic (Detrital) Sedimentary Rocks are named according to the shapes
and sizes of the sediments that form them.
• Conglomerate and breccia both form large sediments.
 Conglomerate have round shapes while breccia have sharp edges.

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Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

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 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
• Chemical sedimentary rocks form when dissolved minerals come out
of solution.
• Minerals collect when seas or lakes evaporate.
• The deposits of minerals that come out of solution form sediments and
rocks.
• Chemical sedimentary rocks are not made from pieces of preexisting
rocks.

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 F/Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
• Sometimes, water cannot hold all of the material that is dissolved in
it.When this occurs, some of the material comes out of the solution as
solids. This process is called precipitation. It can happen when some or
all of the water evaporates. It can also happen when the water is cooled.
• Chemical sedimentary rocks consist of materials that have
precipitated from ocean water or lake water.

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Example of Chemical Sedimentary Rock
• ---Chemical sediments can become sedimentary rocks with very
shallow burial. They can form from meters to a few hundreds of meters
below the surface.
• Limestone (CaCO3):
• Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is carried in solution in ocean water.
• When calcium carbonate comes out of solution as calcite and its many
crystals grow together, limestone forms

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 F/Example of Chemical Sedimentary Rock
• Limestone also can contain other minerals and sediments, but it must
be at least 50 percent calcite
• Limestone usually is deposited on the bottom of lakes or shallow seas.
• When water that is rich in dissolved salt evaporates, it often deposits
the mineral halite.
• Halite forms rock salt. Rock salt deposits can range in thickness from
a few meters to more than 400 m.

• LOTFY
 F/Example of Chemical Sedimentary Rock
• Sulfate( CaMg(CO3)2) is another common chemical sedimentary rock. It
consists of the mineral dolomite. (The mineral and the rock have the same
name.)
• Gypsum (CaSO4 · 2H2O) hydrated calcium sulfate.
 Halite (NaCl) (Rock salt) is also precipitated out of the solution. They are also
called rock salt. They form when the solvent evaporates. The concentration of
the solution then increases. At some point, the concentration is enough for
the rock salt to precipitate out of the solution. Areas with arid (dry)
climates are where intense evaporation is most likely to occur.

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F/Example of Chemical Sedimentary Rock

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 Organic Sedimentary Rock
• Rocks made of the remains of once-living things are called organic
sedimentary rocks.
• One of the most common organic sedimentary rocks is fossil-rich
limestone. Like chemical limestone, fossil-rich limestone is made of
the mineral calcite.
• Fossil-rich limestone mostly contains remains of once-living ocean
organisms.

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 F/Organic Sedimentary Rock
• Organic sedimentary rocks are made of organic materials. Coal is the
best example.
• Coal forms when plants in swamps with a lot of vegetation die and are
buried by the remains of later plants.
• The plant material becomes compacted. Over time, the weight of
overlying sediment turns the vegetation into rock. The first material to
form is called Peat.. It has not yet been buried deeply.

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 F/Organic Sedimentary Rock
 Peat is used by humans for fuel and for agriculture.
 With time and greater compaction, peat is converted to Lignite
(“brown coal”).
 With further compaction, Bituminous coal (“soft coal”) forms.
Approximately 35 m of original plant matter is compacted to form 30
cm of Bituminous coal.
 The most deeply buried coal is called Anthracite (“hard coal”).

• LOTFY
 Example of Organic Sedimentary Rock
• Chalk is another organic sedimentary rock
• that is made of microscopic shells.
• When you write with naturally occurring Chalk,
• you’re crushing and smearing the calcite-shell
• remains of once-living ocean organisms.

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F/Example of Organic Sedimentary Rock
• Another useful organic sedimentary rock is coal.
• Coal forms when pieces of dead plants are buried under other
sediments in swamps. These plant materials are chemically changed
by microorganisms.
• The resulting sediments are compacted over millions of years to form
coal, an important source of energy.

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 Organic Sedimentary Rock
• Sedimentary layers may be found near an ocean. This means that the area
was most likely below sea level in the past.
• Sedimentary layers may also be found in the middle of a continent. This may
mean one of two things:
• 1-The area might have been low relative to nearby mountain ranges. The
sediments to cover the low area came from the mountains.
• 2-The other possibility is that the area was covered by a shallow sea in
the past.

• LOTFY
Summary of Formation of coal
 Sedimentary Environments
• Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments that are deposited in
various places at Earth’s surface. For example, limestone is usually
deposited in a shallow ocean. Sandstone can also be deposited in the desert
sand dunes. However, it can form on a beach, shallow ocean, or river as
well.
• Coal is usually formed in swamps. Sedimentary rock can therefore tell you
something about the environment in the past. Each rock “tells a story”
about the geologic environment in which it formed. However, it may not be
easy to read that story.

• LOTFY
 Sedimentary Rocks and Climate
• Sedimentary rocks can tell you about past climates.
• For example, sandstone that was deposited as desert sand dunes
records a time when the area was dry. Protective vegetation would
have been lacking. Limestones suggest deposition in warm, shallow
oceans.
• Coal forms in tropical to subtropical climates. Ancient coal is found in
Antarctica. This suggests that the climate has changed over time in
the Antarctic.

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Sedimentary Rocks

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Types of Sedimentary Rock

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 Metamorphic Rocks

LO6

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 Metamorphic Rocks
• Metamorphism is the amazing process that transforms a rock into a new kind of rock.
• ----Classification of metamorphic rocks:
• 1) Slate rock
• Description: Very fine grained, usually dark, splits easily along parallel planes.
Rock Before Metamorphism: Mudstone, claystone, shale
• Texture: Strongly foliated: rocks in which platy minerals are arranged to be
approximately parallel, causing the rock to split easily along parallel planes, or where
mineral bands develop in which individual grains show common alignment.

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 F/Classification of metamorphic rocks
• 2) Phyllite rock
• Description: Fine grained, usually dark, splits easily along parallel planes:
often crinkled or folded; not as fi ne grained as slate
• Rock Before Metamorphism: Mudstone, claystone, shale
• Texture: Strongly foliated: rocks in which platy minerals are arranged to
be approximately parallel, causing the rock to split easily along parallel
planes, or where mineral bands develop in which individual grains show
common alignment.

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 F/Classification of metamorphic rocks
• 3) Schist rock
• Description: Medium grained to coarse grained, with parallel alignment of platy
mineral grains like micas
• Rock Before Metamorphism: Mudstone, claystone, shale, some volcanic rocks
• Texture: Strongly foliated: rocks in which platy minerals are arranged to be
approximately parallel, causing the rock to split easily along parallel planes, or
where mineral bands develop in which individual grains show common
alignment.

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 F/Classification of metamorphic rocks
• 4) Gneiss rocks
• Description: Medium grained to coarse grained, often with alternating layers of
light and dark minerals.
• Rock Before Metamorphism: Granite, rhyolite, some sandstones, some volcanic
rocks
• Texture: Strongly foliated: rocks in which platy minerals are arranged to be
approximately parallel, causing the rock to split easily along parallel planes, or
where mineral bands develop in which individual grains show common
alignment.
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 F/Classification of metamorphic rocks
• 5) Marble rock
• Description: Usually light colored, composed of calcite crystals
• Rock Before Metamorphism: Limestone
• Texture: Weakly foliated or non-foliated: rocks without abundant platy
mineral; the rocks do not split easily along parallel planes.

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 F/Classification of metamorphic rocks
• 6) Quartzite rock
• Description: Usually light colored, composed of quartz crystals.
• Rock Before Metamorphism: Quartz sandstone
• Texture: Weakly foliated or non-foliated: rocks without abundant platy
mineral; the rocks do not split easily along parallel planes

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 F/Classification of metamorphic rocks
• 7) Greenstone
• Description: Dark green, fine grained, made of various minerals rich in
iron and magnesium.
• Rock Before Metamorphism: Basalt
• Texture: Weakly foliated or non-foliated: rocks without abundant platy
mineral; the rocks do not split easily along parallel planes

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 F/Classification of metamorphic rocks
• 8) Amphibolite rock
• Description: Dark colored, medium grained to coarse grained, with
abundant amphibole minerals.
• Rock Before Metamorphism: Basalt
• Texture: Weakly foliated or non-foliated: rocks without abundant platy
mineral; the rocks do not split easily along parallel planes

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 Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
• Sedimentary and igneous rocks can be turned into metamorphic rocks. To
do so, they need to be subjected to high temperatures and/or pressures. The
process is called metamorphism.
• The changes occur while the rock is still solid. The temperature of the rock
is not so high that part of the rock melts. If the temperature becomes too
high, part of the rock melts to form magma. The magma later cools to form
igneous rock.
• Crystals of a mineral can grow only in a certain range of temperature and
pressure.

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 F/Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
• Suppose a mineral crystal in a rock is subjected to high temperatures and
pressures outside of this range. Metamorphosis occurs. The mineral crystal is
changed into crystals of one or more different minerals.
• Therefore, the minerals in a metamorphic rock are usually very different
from the minerals in the original rock. However, a few common minerals,
such as quartz and calcite, do not change form.
• When limestone is metamorphosed, the calcite continues to exist. However,
the crystals grow to be much larger.

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 F/Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
• All evidence of the original features of the limestone is destroyed.
• For example, there is no more evidence of fossils.
• Note: Geologists have learned a lot about metamorphic rocks in labs. They use
special furnaces. These furnaces can be heated to extremely high
temperatures. They are also under tremendous pressure. These are the
temperatures and pressures under which metamorphic rocks can form.
Using these studies, the geologist can infer the temperatures and pressures in
Earth when the rocks were formed. Recall that every rock “tells a story.”

• LOTFY
 F/Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
• Metamorphic rocks have their own story to tell.
• The temperature of a rock can be increased in two ways. Rocks can be
buried deeper and deeper in Earth. This can happen by the deposition
of a very thick layer of sediment on top of the rock.
• It can also happen by movement along faults. Very thick masses of
rock are shoved on top of the rock. As the rock is buried, its
temperature gradually increases. This is because the temperature on
Earth increases with depth.

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Diagram explaining regional metamorphism.
F/Formation of
Metamorphic Rocks

• Enormous volumes of rock

can be metamorphosed in
this way by deep burial.
This is the most important
kind of metamorphism. It
is called regional
metamorphism because
large regions of Earth’s
crust can be affected in this
way.

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 F/Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
• The temperature of rock can also be increased if a body of magma passes
near the rock. As the magma cools, the surrounding rock is heated. This
can metamorphose the rock.
• If the intrusion is small, only a thin layer of the surrounding rock is
metamorphosed. However, very large intrusions can metamorphose a large
amount of rock.
• Surrounding rock at thousands of meters away from the intrusion can be
changed. The further away from the intrusion, the less the degree of
metamorphism

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 F/Formation of
Metamorphic Rocks

• When an igneous rock

intrudes another rock,
the intense heat of the
intrusion can result in
the metamorphism of
the surrounding rock.
This is known as contact
metamorphism.

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 Deformation in Metamorphism
• Extreme deformation is common during regional metamorphism.
• The deformation of a rock modeled by shearing. The same thing
happens, usually even more so, when rock is sheared by forces within
Earth. This is especially common where one lithospheric plate slides
down beneath another. when a material is sheared, lines or planes
within it become more parallel. This is called transposition. In many
metamorphic rocks, all kinds of features and structures are “smeared
out” by transposition to become nearly parallel planes.

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 F/Deformation in Metamorphism
• The layering you see in a metamorphic rock may not have anything to
do with layering in the original rock. Forces within Earth can also
stretch or compress the rock. In some metamorphosed conglomerates,
the pebbles are stretched into a shape like a test tube.

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 Foliation in Metamorphic Rocks
• Some sedimentary rocks contain a high percentage of very fine flakes
of mica minerals. These include claystone, mudstone, and shale. These
rocks become metamorphosed first to slate. Then they become
phyllite, and then schist. It depends on the intensity of metamorphism.
• All these rocks tend to split easily along parallel planes. This is
because the mica minerals in the rock have grown to be parallel to one
another. This causes weakness in the direction parallel to the planes of
the mineral grains.

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 F/Foliation in Metamorphic Rocks
• The parallel growth develops for two reasons. First, the mica minerals
grow with their planes perpendicular to the direction of the greatest
force on the rock. Second, when the rock is sheared, the mica grains
tend to become parallel, The tendency for a metamorphic rock to split
along parallel planes is called foliation.
• Foliation is a major feature of many metamorphic rocks.
• This gneiss is an example of a strongly foliated metamorphic rock

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 The Protoliths of Metamorphic Rocks
• The rock from which a metamorphic rock was formed is called the
protolith. Both sedimentary and igneous rocks are protoliths of
metamorphic rocks. The protolith can also be older metamorphic
rock.
• what is the protolith of rock was???? Sometimes this is easy. For
example, a quartzite probably started out as a quartz sandstone.
Marble probably started out as limestone. However, it is sometimes
very difficult to guess the protolith of metamorphic rock.

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 Rock unit
(Rock cycle)

LO7

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 Rock unit
• What Are Rock Units?
• The number of different rock types in Earth’s crust is enormous.
However, if you examine exposed bedrock on Earth’s land surface, you
would find that the rocks are generally about the same type over large
areas.
• Rocks, whether sedimentary, igneous, or metamorphic, are originally
formed in large volumes by a specific process. The rock bodies that are
formed during the same process are called rock units.

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 F/Rock unit
• The change from one rock unit to another is usually abrupt. It occurs across some
surface or narrow zone of change. This surface or zone is called a contact.
• Rock units vary greatly in their size and shape. The size and shape depend on the
processes that form them.
• Sedimentary Rock unit
• Early geologists believed that sediments were laid down in uniform sheets over large
areas of Earth. This concept is referred to as “layer cake” geology. Geologists now
understand that at any given time, different kinds of sediments are deposited in
different places. At times, these deposits are very close together.

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 F/Sedimentary Rock unit
• Different sedimentary rock units can be exposed in the same area of
the land surface. They might consist of conglomerate, sandstone, shale,
or limestone. However, just because they represent different rock units,
you should not assume that they are all of different ages. such units can
be of the same age. They were deposited in different environments at
the same time. As you saw in the cross section, sedimentary rock units
usually have a “width” (lateral extent) that is much greater than their
thickness.

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 F/Sedimentary Rock unit
• They typically range in thickness from tens of meters to thousands of
meters. Their lateral extent can be hundreds of kilometers.
Sedimentary rock units have two part names. The first part is the
name of some place like a town, river, or mountain where the unit is
found. The second part is the name of a rock type, or just the word
“Formation.

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 Igneous Rock Units
• Igneous rocks are formed in two ways. The first way is by cooling and
crystallization of magma below Earth’s surface. This is the way
intrusive igneous rocks are formed. The second way is by volcanic
activity. This involves extrusion of lava, or explosive eruption of
pyroclastic material.
• Intrusive igneous rock units vary greatly in size and shape. Their size
and shape depends on how the magma was put in place in the
surrounding rock.

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 F/Igneous Rock Units
• Sills are sheets of igneous rock that intruded along layers of
sedimentary rocks.
• Dikes are sheets of igneous rock intruded along fractures that cut
through any existing rock.
• Batholiths are large masses of intrusive igneous rock with irregular
shapes.

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 F/Igneous Rock Units
• Units of intrusive igneous rocks can be seen today because the land
surface has slowly been worn down by weathering and erosion As a
result, the once deeply buried igneous rock body is exposed.
• Volcanic igneous rock units are very much like sedimentary rock units
in their size and shape. This is because they are also spread over the
land surface in broad layers. Igneous rock units are given names in
much the same way as sedimentary rock units.

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 Metamorphic Rock Units
• Any rock can be metamorphosed. Therefore, metamorphic rock units
vary greatly in their makeup. Their shapes are more complex than
those of sedimentary and igneous rock units. The reason is that
metamorphism is usually accompanied by large-scale changes in the
shape of the rock units. These changes take place by processes like
folding and faulting.
• Metamorphic rock units are usually named in the same way as
sedimentary and igneous rock units

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 F/Metamorphic Rock Units
• In some areas, sedimentary or igneous rock units change slowly into
metamorphic rock units. This is because the intensity of
metamorphism usually changes slowly from place to place. You should
not be surprised if you see these slow changes on a geologic map. In one
place on the map you might see a rock unit called Smithtown
Limestone. Then it changes gradually to Smithtown Marble in another
area of the map.

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 Thanks!
LOTFY