Chapter 1.

Electromechanical Energy
Conversion

05/28/23 1
 Introduction
Electromechanical energy conversions – use a
magnetic field as the medium of energy
conversion
Electromechanical energy conversion device:
Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
or
Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

2
05/28/23
 Introduction
Three categories of electromechanical energy conversion
devices:
 Transducers (for measurement and control)- small motion

Transform the signals of different forms. Examples:

microphones, sensors and speakers.
 Force producing devices (translational force)- limited
mechanical motion.
Produce forces mostly for linear motion drives, Example
Actuators - relays, solenoids and electromagnets.
 Continuous energy conversion equipment.

Operate in rotating mode. Examples: motors and

generators.
05/28/23 3
 Energy Conversion Process
The principle of conservation of energy:

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It

can only be changed from one form to another.
Therefore total energy in a system is constant

05/28/23 4
 Energy Conversion Process

An electromechanical converter system has three

essential parts:
① An electrical system (electric circuits such as windings)
② A magnetic system (magnetic field in the magnetic cores and air gaps)
③ A mechanical system (mechanically movable parts such as a rotor in an
electrical machine).

05/28/23 5
EM Energy Conversion: Analogy

Thermal
Electrical Energy
Energy (losses)
(input)

Field Energy

Mechanical
Energy
(output)
05/28/23 6
 Energy Conversion Process

Electromechanical
System

Electrical System Magnetic System Mechanical System

Voltages and Position, Speed

Magnetic Flux
Currents and Acceleration

Circuit Equations Froce/Torque Force/Torque Eqns

(KVL and KCL) (Newtons Law)
emf

Concept of electromechanical system modeling

05/28/23 7
 Energy Conversion Process
Electrical system Magnetic system Mechanical
system P mech

Electrical Field loss Mechanical

loss loss

The energy transfer equation is as follows:

 Electrical   Mechanical   Increase in 

       Energy 
 energy input    energy    stored energy in    
 from sources   output   magnetic field   losses 
     

05/28/23 8
 Energy Conversion Process
The energy balance can therefore be written as:

Electricalenergy  Mechanical energy  Increase in 

     
input
 from sources  output
   friction  stored
  field 
     
resistance
 loss and
  windage loss energy
   core loss
For the lossless magnetic energy storage system in differential form,

dWe  dWm  dWf

dWe = i d  = differential change in electric energy input
dWm = fm dx = differential change in mechanical energy output
dWf = differential change in magnetic stored energy

05/28/23 9
 Energy Conversion Process
dλ
We can write dWe  ei dt; e
dt
dλ
dWe  idt  idλ
dt
Here e is the voltage induced in the electric terminals by changing
magnetic stored energy.

dWe  ei dt  dWm  dWf

Together with Faraday’s law for induced voltage, form the basis for
the energy method.

05/28/23 10
 Singly-excited
System

Energy, Coenergy
and Force or Torque

05/28/23 11
 Energy in Magnetic System
Consider the electromechanical system below:

Axial length (perpendicular

to page) = l

Schematic of an electromagnetic relay

05/28/23 12
 Energy in Magnetic System
The mechanical force fm is defined as acting from the
relay upon the external mechanical system and the
differential mechanical energy output of the relay is

dWm = fm dx
Then, substitution dWe = id , gives

dWf = id  – fm dx
Value of Wf is uniquely specified by the values
of  and x, since the magnetic energy storage
system is lossless.
05/28/23 13
 Energy in Magnetic System

 dWf = id

d

Wf   id
dWf = differential change in magnetic stored energy

05/28/23 14
 Energy and Coenergy
The -i characteristics of an electromagnetic system
depends on the air-gap length and B-H characteristics of
the magnetic material.


For a larger air-gap

length the characteristic
is essentially linear. The
characteristic becomes
non linear as the air-gap Increased
air-gap
length decreases. length

05/28/23 15
 Energy and Coenergy


-i

Wf

Wf’

i
For a particular value of air-gap length, the field energy is represented by the
red area between  axis and -i characteristic. The blue area between i axis
and  - i characteristic is known as the coenergy

05/28/23 16
 Energy and Coenergy
The coenergy is defined as
i
W    di
f
'
0
From the figure of  - i characteristic,

Wf’ + Wf = i

Note that Wf’ > Wf if the  - i characteristic is non

linear and Wf’ = Wf if it is linear.
The quantity of coenergy has no physical significance.
However, it can be used to derive expressions for force
(torque) developed in an electromagnetic system
05/28/23 17
 Determination of Force from
Energy
The magnetic stored energy Wf is a state
function, determined uniquely by the
independent state variables λ and x. This is
shown explicitly by

dWf (λ, x) = id  – fm dx

05/28/23 18
 Determination of Force from
Energy
For any function of two independent variables
F(x1,x2), the total differential equation of F with
respect to the two state variables x1 and x2 can
be written
F(x1, x 2 ) F(x1, x 2 )
dF(x1, x 2 )  dx1  dx 2
x1 x x 2 x
2 1

05/28/23 19
 Determination of Force from
Energy
Therefore, for the total differential of Wf
Wf ( , x) Wf ( , x)
dWf ( , x)  d  dx
 x x 

And we know that

dWf ( , x)  id  f m dx



05/28/23 20
 Determination of Force from
Energy
By matching both equations, the current:
Wf ( , x)
i
 x
where the partial derivative is taken while
holding x constant and the mechanical force:
Wf ( , x)
 fm  
x 
where the partial derivative is taken while
holding  constant.
05/28/23
 21
 Determination of Force from
Energy: Linear System
For a linear magnetic system for which =L(x)i:
 
 1 2
Wf ( , x)   i( , x)d   d 
0 0 L(x) 2 L(x)
and the force, fm can be found directly:

Wf ( , x)  1 2  2 dL(x)

fm       
 x 
2
x 2 L(x)  2L(x) dx

05/28/23 22
 Determination of Torque from
Energy
For a system with a rotating mechanical terminal,
the mechanical terminal variables become the
angular displacement θ and the torque T.
Therefore, equation for the torque:

Wf ( , )
T 
 

where the partial derivative is taken while

holding  constant.
05/28/23
 23
 Determination of Force from
Coenergy
The coenergy Wf’ is defined as
W f' (i, x)  i  W f ( , x)
and the differential coenergy dWf’:
'
dW (i, x)  d(i )  dW f ( , x)
f

We know previously that
dWf ( , x)  id  f m dx

05/28/23 24
 Determination of Force from
Coenergy
By expanding d(iλ):
d(i )  id  di
So, the differential coenergy dWf’:
'
dW (i, x)  d(i )  dW f ( , x)
 f
 id  di  (id  f m dx)
 di  f m dx

05/28/23
 25
 Determination of Force from
Coenergy
By expanding dWf’(i,x):
' '
' W (i, x) Wf (i, x)
dWf (i, x)  f
di  dx
i x
x i

and, from the previous result:

'
dW (i, x)  di  f m dx
f


 05/28/23 26
 Determination of Force from
Coenergy
By matching both equations, :
Wf' (i, x)

i x
where the partial derivative is taken while
holding x constant and the mechanical force:
Wf' (i, x)
 fm 
x i
where the partial derivative is taken while
holding i constant.


05/28/23 27
 Determination of Force from
Coenergy: Linear System
For a linear magnetic system for which =L(x)i:
i i 2
i
Wf' (i, x)   (i, x)di   L(x)idi L(x)
0 0 2
and the force, fm can be found directly:
'
W (i, x)   i 2  2
i dL(x)
 fm  f
 L(x)  
x i
x  2 i 2 dx

05/28/23 28
 Determination of Torque from
Coenergy
For a system with a rotating mechanical terminal,
the mechanical terminal variables become the
angular displacement θ and the torque T.
Therefore, equation for the torque:

'
W (i, )
T f
 i
where the partial derivative is taken while
holding  constant.
05/28/23  29
 Determination of Force Using
Energy or Coenergy?
The selection of energy or coenergy as the
function to find the force is purely a matter of
convenience.
They both give the same result, but one or the
other may be simpler analytically, depending on
the desired result and characteristics of the
system being analyzed.

05/28/23 30
 Direction of Force Developed
Wf ( , x)
1. By using energy function: f m  
x 

The negative sign shows that the force acts in a

direction to decrease the magnetic field stored
energy at constant flux.
 '
W (i, x)
2. By using coenergy function: f m   f
x i
The positive sign emphasizes that the force acts
in a direction to increase the coenergy at
constant current.
05/28/23
 31
 Direction of Force Developed
3. By using inductance function:
2
i dL(x)
fm  
2 dx i
The positive sign emphasizes that the force acts
in a direction to increase the inductance at
constant
 current.

05/28/23 32
 B-H Curve and Energy Density
In a magnetic circuit having a substantial air
gap g, and high permeability of the iron core,
nearly all the stored energy resides in the gap.
Therefore, in most of the cases we just need
to consider the energy stored in the gap. The
magnetic stored energy,

W f   id
0

Hg
in which i and d  d ( N )  d ( NAB )  NAdB
N

* Sen pg97
05/28/23 05/28/23 Dr Awang Jusoh/Dr Makbul 33
33
 B-H Curve and Energy Density
B Hg B
Therefore, W f  NAdB  Ag  H dB
0 N 0

However, Ag is volume of the air gap. Dividing

both sides of the above equation by the volume
Ag results in

Wf B
wf    H dB
Ag 0

* Sen pg97
05/28/23 05/28/23 Dr Awang Jusoh/Dr Makbul 34
34
 B-H Curve and Energy Density
B
where w f   H dB is energy per unit volume
0

wf is known as energy density.

wf
B
The area between the B-H
curve and B axis
represents the energy
H density in the air gap.

* Sen pg97
05/28/23 05/28/23 Dr Awang Jusoh/Dr Makbul 35
35
 B-H Curve and Energy Density
In the same manner,
H
w 
'
f BdH is coenergy per unit volume.
0

B
w f’

The area between the B-H

curve and H axis represents
the coenergy density in the
air gap.
H

* Sen pg97
05/28/23 05/28/23 Dr Awang Jusoh/Dr Makbul 36
36
 B-H Curve and Energy Density
For a linear magnetic circuit, B = H or H =
B/, energy density:
2
B B B B
w f   H dB   dB 
0 0  2
and coenergy density:
H H 2
H
w'f   BdH    HdH 
0 0
2

In this case, it is obvious that wf = wf’.

* Sen pg97
05/28/23 05/28/23 Dr Awang Jusoh/Dr Makbul 37
37
 Example 3.1 PC Sen
The dimensions of the relay system are shown in
figure below. The magnetic core is made of cast
steel whose B-H characteristic is shown in Figure
1.7 (pg.6). The coil has 300 turns, and the coil
resistance is 6 ohms. For a fixed air-gap length lg =
4 mm, a dc source is connected to the coil to
produce a flux density of 1.1 Tesla in the air-gap.
lg 5 cm
Calculate
(a)The voltage of the dc source. 5 cm
(b)The stored field energy.
10 cm Depth =10 cm

Pg:99 PC Sen 5 cm

05/28/23 38
10 cm
 Example 3.2 PC Sen
The -i relationship for an electromagnetic
system is given by
2
 g 
i 
 0.09 

which is valid for the limits 0 < i < 4 A and 3 < g <
10 cm. For current i = 3A and air gap length g = 5
cm, find the mechanical force on the moving part
using coenergy and energy of the field.
-124.7 Nm
pg103 sen
05/28/23 39
 Example 3.3 PC Sen
The magnetic system shown in the Figure has the
following parameters:
N = 400, i = 3 A
Width of air-gap = 2.5 cm i
lg
Depth of air-gap = 2.5 cm N
Ag
Length of air-gap = 1.5 mm

Neglect the reluctance of the core, leakage flux

and the fringing flux. Determine:
(a) The force of attraction between both sides of
the air-gap
(b) The energy stored in the air-gap.
(c) Coil Inductance Sen pg 106
05/28/23 40
 Example 3.4 PC Sen
The lifting magnetic system is shown, with a
square cross section area 6 x 6 cm2. The coil
has 300 turns and a resistance of 6 ohms.
Neglect core reluctance and fringing effect.
a)The air gap is initially 5mm and a dc source of
120 V is connected to the coil. Determine the
stored field energy and the lifting force
b)The air gap is held at 5 mm and an ac source
of 120 Vrms at 60 Hz is supplied to the coil.
Determine the average value of the lift force
Sen 107
05/28/23 41
 Example 1
Q. The magnetic circuit shown in Figure Q1 is made of high permeability steel so
that its reluctance can be negligible. The movable part is free to move about an
x-axis. The coil has 1000 turns, the area normal to the flux is (5 cm  10 cm),
and the length of a single air gap is 5 mm.
(i) Derive an expression for the inductance, L, as a function of air gap, g.
(ii) Determine the force, Fm, for the current i =10 A.
(iii) The maximum flux density in the air gaps is to be limited to
approximately 1.0 Tesla to avoid excessive saturation of the steel. Compute the
maximum force.

Immovable x
part g
Reference
position

i
+ Fm

e
Spring
-

Movable
part
05/28/23 42
 Example 2
Figure below shows a relay made of infinitely-permeable magnetic material
with a moveable plunger (infinitely-permeable material). The height of the
plunger is much greater than air gap length (h>>g). Calculate
a) The magnetic storage energy Wf as a function of plunger position ( 0< x
<d) for N = 1000 turns, g = 2 mm, d= 0.15 m, = 0.1 m and i = 10 A.
b) The generated force, Fm

b)Pg 121/
132 Fgrld
05/28/23 43
a)Fgrald :pg121
 Example 3
The magnetic circuit shown is made of high-permeability
electrical steel. Assume the reluctance of steel  -- infinity.
Derive the expression for the torque acting on the rotor .

Fgrd pg
135

05/28/23 44
 Example 4
The magnetic circuit below consists of a single coil stator and
an oval rotor. Because of the air-gap is non uniform, the coil
inductance varies with the rotor angular position.
Given coil inductance L() = Lo + L2cos2, where Lo= 10.6
mH and L2= 2.7 mH.
Find torque as a function of  for a coil current of 2 A.

05/28/23 45
Fgrd pg 129
05/28/23 46
05/28/23 47
 Doubly-excited
Systems

Energy, Coenergy
and Force or Torque

05/28/23 48
 Rotating Machines
 Most of the energy converters, particularly the
higher-power ones, produce rotational motion.
 The essential part of a rotating electromagnetic
system is shown in the figure.
 The fixed part is called the stator,
the moving part is called the rotor.
 The rotor is mounted on a shaft
and is free to rotate between
the poles of the stator
 Let consider general case where
both stator & rotor have windings
carrying current ( is and ir )
05/28/23 49
 Rotating Machines
 Assume general case, both stator and rotor have winding carrying
currents (non-uniform air gap – silent pole rotor)
 The system stored field energy, Wf can be evaluated by
establishing the stator current is and rotor current ir and let
system static, i.e. no mechanical output

Stator and rotor

flux linkage  is
expressed in
terms of
inductances L
(which depends
on position rotor
angle , L()

05/28/23 50
 Rotating Machines
 Stored field energy

In linear system,
X
 Torque coenergy = energy
W’f = Wf

 First two terms represents reluctance torque; variation of

self inductance (exist in both salient stator and rotor, or in
either stator or rotor is salient)
 The third term represents alignment torque; variation of
05/28/23
mutual inductance.
 Reluctance Torque – It is caused by the
tendency of the induced pole to align with
excited pole such that the minimum
reluctance is produced. At least one or both of
the winding must be excited.

Alignment Torque – It is caused by a

tendency of the excited rotor to align with
excited stator so as to maximize the mutual
inductance. Both winding must be excited.

05/28/23 52
 Cylindrical Machines
 Reluctance machines are simple in construction,
but torque developed in these machines is small.
 Cylindrical machines, although more complex in
construction, produce larger torques.
 Most electrical machines are of the cylindrical
type.

05/28/23 53
 Cylindrical Machines
 A cross sectional view of an elementary
two pole cylindrical rotating machine 　 is
(uniform air gap) shown.
 The stator and rotor windings are placed
on two slots.
 In the actual machine the windings 　　 are
distributed over several slots.
 If the effects of the slots are neglected,
the reluctance of the magnetic path is
independent of the position of the rotor.
 Assumed Lss and Lrr are constant (i.e no
reluctance torque produced).
 Alignment torque is caused by the
tendency of the excited rotor to align with
the excited stator, depends on mutual
inductance
05/28/23 54
 Cylindrical machines
 Torque produced Tm when =90o
dLsr dMcosθ
T  i si r  isi r  Mi s i r sinθ
dθ dθ
 Mutual inductance

 Currents

 Rotor position
Where
M = peak value of mutual inductance
 = the angle between magnetic axis of
the stator and rotor windings
m = angular velocity of rotor
05/28/23 55
 Cylindrical Machines
T  Ism I rm Mcosωs t cos(ω r t  α) sin(ω m t  δ)

 Torque in general varies sinusoidally with time

 Average value of each term is zero unless the coefficient of t
is zero

05/28/23 56
 Cylindrical Machines
 Non zero average torque exists/develop only if
Machine develop torque
if sum or difference of
the angular speed of the
Case 1: stator and rotor current
 Synchronous machine
Wr =0 – Idc at rotor

 Single phase machine

 Pulsating torque

 Polyphase machine minimize pulsating torque

 Not self starting (ωm = 0 → Tavg = 0
05/28/23 57
 Cylindrical Machines
 Asynchronous machines

 Single phase machine

 Pulsating torque
 Not self starting

 Polyphase machine minimize pulsating torque and self starting

05/28/23 58
 Example
 In a electromagnetic system, the rotor has no winding
(i.e. we have a reluctance motor) and the inductance
of the stator as a function of the rotor position θ is
Lss = L0 + L2 cos 2θ. The stator current is is= Ism sin ωt
(a) Obtain an expression for the torque acting on the rotor
(b) Let  = mt+ , where m is the angular velocity of the
rotor and  is the rotor position at t = 0. Find the
condition for the non-zero average torque and obtain
the expression for the average torque.

Sen pg 111
05/28/23 59
 Example 5
In a doubly excited rotating actuator shown in figure
below, the stator inductances are given as L11= (3+cos2)
mH, L12 = 0.3cos, and the rotor impedance is L22 =
30+10cos2. Find the developed torque in the system for
i1=0.8A and i2 = 0.01 A.

Fgrd pg 140
05/28/23 60