Mechanics of Materials, SI Version

SEVENTH EDITION

Chapter 2
Axially Loaded
Members

1
 Outlines

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Changes in Lengths of Axially Loaded Members
2.3 Changes in Lengths Under Non-uniform Conditions
2.4 Statically Indeterminate Structures
2.5 Thermal Effects, Misfits, and Prestrains
2.6 Stresses on Inclined Sections

2
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS

• External loads are not the only sources of

stresses and strains in a structure.
• Other sources
– thermal effects arising from temperature
changes
– misfits resulting from imperfections in
construction
– prestrains that are produced by initial
deformations.

3
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS

• Still other causes are settlements (or movements) of

supports, inertial loads resulting from accelerating
motion, and natural phenomenon such as
earthquakes.
• Thermal effects, misfits, and prestrains are
commonly found in both mechanical and structural
systems and are described in this section.
• As a general rule, they are much more important in
the design of statically indeterminate structures than
in statically determinate ones.
4
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Thermal effects

Changes in temperature produce expansion or

contraction of structural materials, resulting in
thermal strains and thermal stresses.
A simple illustration of thermal expansion is
shown in Fig. 2-19, where the block of material is
unrestrained and therefore free to expand.
If we take corner A as a fixed reference point and
let side AB maintain its original alignment, the
block will have the shape shown by the dashed
lines.
5
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Thermal effects For most structural materials, thermal
strain εT is proportional to the
temperature change ΔT; that is,
εT= α ΔT
α = coefficient of thermal expansion
Since strain is a dimensionless quantity, the
coefficient of thermal expansion has units
equal to the reciprocal of temperature
change.
SI units: α  1/K (the reciprocal of kelvins)
1/℃ (the reciprocal of degrees Celsius)
When a sign convention is needed: Expansion  +
Contraction  -
6
 Temperature Range Thermal Expansion Temperature Range Thermal Expansion

2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND

Metal Metal
(oF) (microinch/(inoF)) (oF) (microinch/(inoF))
68 - 572
Admiralty Brass 11.2 32 - 212 5.8 Cast Iron, grey

Aluminum68 - 212 PRESTRAINS

13.1 7 Cast Steel, 3% C

Aluminum Bronze 68 - 572 9 Chromium 3.3

Aluminum Alloy -
2011 12.8 Cobalt 6.7
Aluminum Alloy -
2017 13.1 Copper 68 - 572 9.8
Aluminum Alloy - Copper-Base Alloy -
2024 12.9 Manganese Bronze 11.8
Copper-Base Alloy -
Aluminum Alloy -
3003 12.9 C1100 (Electrolytic 9.8
tough pitch)
Copper-Base Alloy -
Aluminum Alloy -
5052 13.2 C14500 (Free 9.9
Machining Cu)
Copper-Base Alloy -
Aluminum Alloy -
5086 13.2 C17200, C17300 9.9
(Beryllium Cu)
Copper-Base Alloy -
Aluminum Alloy -
6061 13 C18200 (Chromium 9.8
Cu)
Aluminum Alloy - Copper-Base Alloy -
7075 13.1 C18700 (Leaded Cu) 9.8
Copper-Base Alloy -
Antimony 5 C22000 (Commercial 10.2
bronze, 90%)
Copper-Base Alloy -
Beryllium 6.7 C23000 (Red brass, 10.4
85%)
Copper-Base Alloy -
Beryllium Copper 68 - 212 9.3 C26000 (Cartridge 11.1
brass, 70%)
7
Bismuth 7.2
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Thermal effects
• To demonstrate the relative importance of thermal
strains, we will compare thermal strains with load-
induced strains in the following manner.
• Suppose we have an axially loaded bar with longitudinal
strains given by the equation ε = σ/E, where σ is the
stress and E is the modulus of elasticity.
• Then suppose we have an identical bar subjected to a
temperature change ΔT, which means that the bar has
thermal strains

  E  T 
8
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Thermal effects
• From this equation we can calculate the axial stress σ that
produces the same strain as does the temperature change
ΔT.
• For instance, consider a stainless steel bar with E =
200GPa and α = 17x10-6/ 0C.
• A quick calculation from the preceding equation for σ shows
that a change in temperature of 600C produces the same
strain as a stress of 214MPa.

9
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Thermal effects
Assume that the material is:
homogeneous and Isotropic
ΔT is uniform throughout the block
We can calculate the increase in any
dimension of the block by multiplying
the original dimension by the thermal
strain.
For instance, if one of the
dimensions is L, then that dimension
will increase
temperature-displacement
relation
T  T L   ( T )L
10
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Thermal effects

• A temperature-displacement relation, analogous to the

force-displacement relations described in the preceding
section.

• It can be used to calculate changes in lengths of

structural members subjected to uniform temperature
changes
11
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Assume that the temperature of bar AB is changed
Thermal effects by ΔT1 and the temperature of bar BC is changed
by ΔT2.

Because the truss is statically determinate, both

bars are free to lengthen or shorten, resulting in a
displacement of joint B.

However, there are no stresses in either bar and

no reactions at the supports.

This conclusion applies generally to statically

determinate structures; that is, uniform
temperature changes in the members produce
thermal strains (and the corresponding changes
in lengths) without producing any corresponding
stresses. 12
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
A statically indeterminate structure may
Thermal effects
or may not develop temperature
stresses, depending upon the character
of the structure and the nature of the
temperature changes.
Because the supports of this structure
permit joint D to move horizontally, no
stresses are developed when the
entire truss is heated uniformly.
All members increase in length in
proportion to their original lengths, and
the truss becomes slightly larger in
size. 13
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Thermal effects However, if some bars are heated
and others are not, thermal
stresses will develop because the
statically indeterminate
arrangement of the bars prevents
free expansion.
To visualize this condition, imagine
that just one bar is heated.
As this bar becomes longer, it
meets resistance from the other
bars, and therefore stresses
develop in all members.
14
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Thermal effects
• The analysis of a statically indeterminate structure with
temperature changes is based upon the concepts discussed in
the preceding section, namely equilibrium equations,
compatibility equations, and displacement relations.

• The principal difference is that we now us temperature-

displacement relations
T  T L   ( T )L
in addition to force-displacement relations (such as
δ = PL/EA) when performing the analysis.
15
Example 2.7

16
 Example 2.7

F vertical  0  RB  RA  0
 statically indeterminate
 AB  0 (because the supports do not move)
 AB   T   R  0
 T    T  L
RA L
R 
EA
RA L
  T   R    T  L  0
EA
RA  RB  EA  T 
RA RB
 T    E  T 
A A
17
 Example 2.7
• When determining the thermal elongation of the bar, we
assumed that the material was homogeneous and that the
increase in temperature was uniform throughout the volume of
the bar.
• Also, when determining the decrease in length due to the
reactive force, we assumed linearly elastic behavior of the
material.
• The bar in this example has zero
longitudinal displacements, not only at
the fixed ends but also at every cross
section.
• Thus, there are no axial strains in this
bar, and we have the special situation of
longitudinal stresses without longitudinal
strains.

18
Example 2.8

19
Example 2.8

20
Example 2.8

21
Example 2.8

22
Example 2.8

23
Example 2.8

24
Example 2.8

25
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Misfits and Prestrains

• Suppose that a member of a structure is manufactured

with its length slightly different from its prescribed length.
• Then the member will not fit into the structure in its
intended manner, and the geometry of the structure will
be different from what was planned.  misfits.
• Sometimes misfits are intentionally created in order to
introduce strains into the structure at the time it is built.

26
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Misfits and Prestrains
• Because these strains exist before any loads are applied to the
structure, they are called prestrains.
• Accompanying the prestrains are prestresses, and the structure is
said to be prestressed.
• Common examples of prestressing are spokes in bicycle wheels
(which would collapse if not prestressed), the pretensioned faces of
tennis racquets, shrink-fitted machine parts, and prestressed concrete
beams.

27
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Misfits and Prestrains

Statically determinate
• Small misfits in one or more members will not
produce strains or stresses, although there will
be departures from the theoretical configuration
of the structure.

28
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Misfits and Prestrains
• If bar CD has exactly the correct
length L, the beam will be
horizontal at the time the structure
is built.
• However, if the bar is slightly
longer than intended, the beam
will make a small angle with the
horizontal.
• Nevertheless, there will be no
strains or stresses in either the
bar or the beam attributable to the
incorrect length of the bar. 29
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Misfits and Prestrains
• Furthermore, if a load P acts at the
end of the beam, the stresses in the
structure due to that load will be
unaffected by the incorrect length of
bar CD.
• In general, if a structure is statically
determinate, the presence of small
misfits will produce small changes in
geometry but no strains or stresses.
• Thus, the effects of a misfit are
similar to those of a temperature
change.
30
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Misfits and Prestrains

Statically indeterminate
• The structure is not free to adjust to misfits
( just as it is not free to adjust to certain
kinds of temperature changes).

31
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Misfits and Prestrains
• If both bars have exactly the correct
length L, the structure can be
assembled with no strains or stresses
and the beam will be horizontal.
• Suppose, however, that bar CD is
slightly longer than the prescribed
length.
• Then, in order to assemble the
structure, bar CD must be compressed
by external forces (or bar EF stretched
by external forces), the bars must be
fitted into place, and then the external
forces must be released.

32
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Misfits and Prestrains
• As a result, the beam will deform
and rotate, bar CD will be in
compression, and bar EF will be in
tension.
• In other words, prestrains will exist
in all members and the structure
will be prestressed, even though
no external loads are acting.
• If a load P is now added,
additional strains and stresses will
be produced.

33
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Misfits and Prestrains

• The analysis of a statically indeterminate structure with

misfits and prestrains proceeds in the same general
manner as described previously for loads and
temperature changes.
• The basic ingredients of the analysis are
– equations of equilibrium,
– equations of compatibility,
– force-displacement relations, and
– (if appropriate) temperature-displacement relations.

34
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS

Bolts and Turnbuckles

• Prestressing a structure requires that one or
more parts of the structure be stretched or
compressed from their theoretical lengths.
• A simple way to produce a change in length is to
tighten a bolt or a turnbuckle.

35
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Bolts

• each turn of the nut will cause the nut to travel along the
bolt a distance equal to the spacing p of the threads
(called the pitch of the threads).
• Thus, the distance δ traveled by the nut is

  np
n is the number of revolutions of the nut (not necessarily an integer)

36
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Turnbuckles

• In the case of a double-acting turnbuckle, there are two

end screws.
• Because a right-hand thread is used at one end and a
left-hand thread at the other, the device either lengthens
or shortens when the buckle is rotated.
• Each full turn of the buckle causes it to travel a distance
p along each screw, where again p is the pitch of the
threads.
37
 2.5 THERMAL EFFECTS, MISFITS, AND
PRESTRAINS
Turnbuckles

• Therefore, if the turnbuckle is tightened by one turn, the

screws are drawn closer together by a distance 2p and
the effect is to shorten the device by 2p.
• For n turns, we have

  2np
• Turnbuckles are often inserted in cables and then
tightened, thus creating initial tension in the cables
38
Example 2.9

39
Example 2.9

40
Example 2.9

41
Example 2.9

42
 2.6 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS

• previous discussions of tension and

compression in axially loaded members, the only
stresses we considered were the normal
stresses acting on cross sections

43
 2.6 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
Bar:
prismatic and homogeneous
Axial Force P:
acts at the centroid of the cross-
sectional area
cross section is away from any
localized stress concentrations
no shear stresses acting on
the cut section

• When the bar is cut at an intermediate cross section by a

plane mn (perpendicular to the x axis), we obtain the free-
body diagram.
• The normal stresses acting over the cut section may be
calculated from the formula σx = P/A provided that the stress
distribution is uniform over the entire cross-sectional area A.44
 2.6 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS

• The most useful way of representing the stresses in the

bar is to isolate a small element of material, such as the
element labeled C, and then show the stresses acting on
all faces of this element.
• An element of this kind is called a stress element.
• The stress element at point C is a small rectangular
block (it doesn’t matter whether it is a cube or a
rectangular parallelepiped) with its right-hand face lying
in cross section mn.
45
 2.6 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS

For convenient

• The dimensions of a stress element are assumed to be

infinitesimally small, but for clarity we draw the element
to a large scale.
• In this case, the edges of the element are parallel to the
x, y, and z axes, and the only stresses are the normal
stresses σx acting on the x faces (recall that the x faces
have their normals parallel to the x axis).
46
 2.6 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
Stresses on Inclined Sections

• Because the stresses are the same throughout the entire

bar, the stresses acting over the inclined section must be
uniformly distributed

47
 2.6 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
Stresses on Inclined Sections

• From the equilibrium of the free body we know that the

resultant of the stresses must be a horizontal force P.

48
 2.6 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
Stresses on Inclined Sections

N  P cos 
V  P sin

49
 2.6 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
Stresses on Inclined Sections

50
 2.6 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS

Stresses on Inclined Sections

N P Cos22 θ V P
   sin  ;     sin cos 
A1 A A1 A
P 1 1
 x  ; cos2   1  cos 2 ; sin  cos   sin 2 
A 2 2
x
     x cos  
2
1  cos 2 
2
x
    x sin cos    sin 2 
2 51
 2.6 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
Stresses on Inclined Sections

x
    x cos  
2
1  cos 2 
2
x
    x sin cos    sin2 
2
• It is important to recognize that Eqs. were derived only from
statics, and therefore they are independent of the material.
• Thus, these equations are valid for any material, whether it
behaves linearly or nonlinearly, elastically or inelastically.
52
 2.6 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
Stresses on Inclined Sections

The manner in which the stresses vary as

the inclined section is cut at various angles

   x , when   0    0, when   0 and  90

   0, when   90 x
The maximum normal stress at   0  max  , when   45 

2
  max   x ; x
1  max   , when   45
when   45,    x 2
2 53
 2.6 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
Maximum Normal and Shear Stresses

tension
θ = 135 o

clockwise
θ = -135o θ = -45o
54
 2.6 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS

Maximum Normal and Shear Stresses

• Even though the maximum

shear stress in an axially loaded
bar is only one-half the
maximum normal stress, the
shear stress may cause failure
if the material is much weaker
in shear than in tension.
• An example of a shear failure
which shows a block of wood
that was loaded in compression
and failed by shearing along a
45° plane. 55
 2.6 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
Maximum Normal and Shear Stresses

• A similar type of behavior occurs in

mild steel loaded in tension.
• During a tensile test of a flat bar of
low-carbon steel with polished
surfaces, visible slip bands appear on
the sides of the bar at approximately
45° to the axis (left figure).
• These bands indicate that the
material is failing in shear along the
planes on which the shear stress is
maximum. 56
 2.6 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
Uniaxial Stress

• The state of stress described throughout this section is called

uniaxial stress, for the obvious reason that the bar is
subjected to simple tension or compression in just one
direction.
• The most important orientations of stress elements for uniaxial
stress are θ = 0 and θ = 45°
– the former has the maximum normal stress (θ = 0 )
– the latter has the maximum shear stress (θ = 45° )
x x
    x cos2   1  cos 2 ;     x sin cos    sin 2  57
2 2
 2.6 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS

Uniaxial Stress

• If sections are cut through the bar at other angles, the

stresses acting on the faces of the corresponding stress
elements can be determined from

x x
    x cos2   1  cos 2 ;     x sin cos   sin2 
2 2
58
Example 2.10

59
Example 2.10

60
Example 2.10

61
Example 2.10

62
Mechanics of Materials – Brief Edition, SI Gere & Goodno
Example
2.11

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Mechanics of Materials – Brief Edition, SI Gere & Goodno

Example 2.11 Continued

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Mechanics of Materials – Brief Edition, SI Gere & Goodno

Example 2.11 Continued

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Mechanics of Materials – Brief Edition, SI Gere & Goodno

Example 2.11 Continued

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. 66

All Rights Reserved.
Mechanics of Materials – Brief Edition, SI Gere & Goodno

Example 2.11 Continued

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. 67

All Rights Reserved.
Mechanics of Materials – Brief Edition, SI Gere & Goodno

Example 2.11 Continued

© 2012 Cengage Learning Engineering. 68

All Rights Reserved.