©Dr.

Avinash Chandra

UES-031

Fluid Mechanics

Dr. Avinash Chandra

Assistant Professor

Department of Chemical Engineering

Thapar University, Patiala (Punjab)
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Pipe Flow System

Pipe
D=2R Center
RR
R line
L
Schematic diagram of a circular pipe
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

 The energy of the system is expressed in terms of ‘head.’

2
P V
H z
g 2g
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL )

Hydraulic gradient line is the sum of pressure

head and datum head
p
HGL   h
g
where
The hydraulic grade line lies one velocity head below
the energy line.
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Total energy gradient line (TEL)

 A line plotted of total head versus distance
through a system is called the total energy line
(TEL).
 The TEL is also known as energy grade line (EGL).
 The sum of the elevation head and pressure head
yields the hydraulic grade line (HGL).
or
TEL is equal to sum of pressure head ,velocity head and
datum head along a streamline

p v2
TEL  H  + + h  constant
g 2g
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

 In a uniform pipeline, the total shear stress (resistance to flow) is

constant along the pipe resulting in a uniform degradation of the
total energy or head along the pipeline.

 The total head loss along a specified length of pipeline is referred

to head loss due to friction and denoted as hf.

 For a fluid flow without any losses due to friction (major losses)
or components (minor losses) - the energy line would be at a
constant level. In a practical world the energy line decreases
along the flow due to losses.

 A turbine in the flow reduces the energy line and a pump or fan
in the line increases the energy line
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

HGL & TEL

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 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Figure: Flow in a uniform pipeline

 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

 Referring to the previous figure, the Bernoulli

equation can be written from section 1 to section
2 as;

2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2
 z1    z2   hf
g 2g g 2g
©Dr. Avinash Chandra
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Types of Flow
The physical nature of fluid flow can be categorized into three
types, i.e. laminar, transition and turbulent flow. It has been
mentioned earlier that Reynolds Number (Re) can be used to
characterize these flow.
VD VD
Re  
 
where  = density
 = dynamic viscosity
 = kinematic viscosity ( = /)
V = mean velocity
D = pipe diameter
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

In general, flow in commercial pipes have been found to

conform to the following condition:

Laminar Flow: Re <2000

Transitional Flow : 2000 < Re <4000
Turbulent Flow : Re >4000
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Laminar flow

Viscous shears dominate in this type of flow and the fluid

appears to be moving in discreet layers. The shear stress
is governed by Newton’s law of viscosity

du
 
dy
In general the shear stress is almost impossible to
measure. But for laminar flow it is possible to calculate
the theoretical value for a given velocity, fluid and the
appropriate geometrical shape.
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Pressure loss during a laminar flow in a pipe

For ideal fluid where there is no losses due to friction or any other factors.

For real fluids, fluids are viscous, energy is lost by flowing fluids due to
friction which must be taken into account.

The effect of friction shows itself as a pressure (or head) loss.

The shear stress will vary with velocity of flow and hence with Re.
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

 In laminar flow the paths of individual

particles of fluid do not cross, so the flow may
be considered as a series of concentric
cylinders sliding over each other – rather like
the cylinders of a collapsible pocket
telescope.
 Lets consider a cylinder of fluid with a length
L, radius r, flowing steadily in the center of
pipe.
A typical velocity
distribution in a
pipe flow

Cylindrical of fluid flowing steadily in a pipe

 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

The fluid is in equilibrium, shearing forces equal the pressure

forces.
Shearing force = Pressure force
  2 rL   PA  P r 2
P r

L 2
Taking the direction of measurement r (measured from the
center of pipe), rather than the use of y (measured from the
pipe wall), the above equation can be written as;

dur
  
dr
Equating these Eqs. will give:
P r du
 
L 2 dr
du P r

dr L 2
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

In an integral form this gives an expression for velocity, with the

values of r = 0 (at the pipe center) to r = R (at the pipe wall)

P 1 r  R
u 
L 2 r 0
rdr

ur 
 R 2
 r 2  P
4 L
where P = change in pressure
L = length of pipe
R = pipe radius
r = distance measured from the center of pipe
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

The maximum velocity is at the center of the pipe, i.e. when

r = 0.
R P
2
umax 
4 L
It can be shown that the mean velocity is half the maximum
velocity, i.e.

umax
V
2
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Shear stress and velocity distribution in pipe for laminar flow

The discharge may be found using the Hagen-Poiseuille equation,

which is given by the following;

P  D 4
Q
L 128
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

The Hagen-Poiseuille expresses the discharge Q

in terms of the pressure gradient, diameter of
pipe, and viscosity of the fluid.
where
 dP P 
Pressure gradient    
 dx L 
Pressure drop throughout the length of pipe can
then be calculated by

8 LQ
P 
 R4
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Turbulent flow
In this type of flow both viscous and turbulent shear stresses exists.

Thus, the shear stress in turbulent flow is a combination of laminar and

turbulent shear stresses, and can be written as:

dU
   la min ar   turbulent     
dy

where  = dynamic viscosity

 = eddy viscosity which is not a fluid property but

depends upon turbulence condition of flow.
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

The velocity at any point in the cross-section will be proportional to the

one-seventh power of the distance from the wall, which can be expressed
as: 1/7
Uy  y
 
U CL R
where Uy is the velocity at a distance y from the wall, UCL is the velocity at
the centerline of pipe, and R is the radius of pipe. This equation is known
as the Prandtl one-seventh law.

the velocity profile for turbulent flow in a pipe. The shape of the profile is
said to be logarithmic.

Figure: Velocity profile for turbulent flow

 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Example 6.1
Glycerin ( = 1258 kg/m3, =9.60 x10-1 N.s/m2) flows with
a velocity of 3.6 m/s in a 150-mm diameter pipe.
Determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
Solution:
VD
Re 

1258  3.6  0.15
Re  1
 708
9.60 10
Since Re =708, which is less than 2000, the flow is
laminar.
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Major Losses due to friction

 When a liquid flows through a pipeline, shear stresses develop
between the liquid and the pipe wall.

 This shear stress is a result of friction, and its magnitude is

dependent upon the properties of the fluid, the speed at which
it is moving, the internal roughness of the pipe, the length and
diameter of pipe.

 Friction loss, also known as major loss, is a primary cause of

energy loss in a pipeline system.

 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Friction Losses in Laminar flow

In laminar flow, the fluid seems to flow as several layers, one on
another. Because of the viscosity of the fluid, a shear stress is created
between the layers of fluid.
Energy is lost from the fluid to overcome the frictional forces
produced by the shear stress.
 Energy loss is usually represented by the drop of pressure in the
direction of flow.

Therefore, the frictional head loss, hf, can be written in terms of

pressure drop along the pipeline, as follows:

P
hf 
g
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Substituting the Hagen-Poiseuille equation and applying the

continuity equation, Q = VA, to the above resulted into the
following expression:

32  LV 64 L V 2
hf  
 gD 2
Re D 2 g

f
Friction factor
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Friction Losses in Turbulent flow

 In turbulent flow, the friction head loss can be calculated by considering
the pressure losses along the pipelines.
 In a horizontal pipe of diameter D carrying a steady flow there will be a
pressure drop in a length L of the pipe.
 Equating the frictional resistance to the difference in pressure forces,
and manipulating resulted into the following expression:
L V2
hf  f
D 2g
This equation is known as Darcy-Weisbach (D-W) equation, in which f is
the friction factor. It should be noted that f is dimensionless, and the value
is not constant
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Minor Losses
 In addition to head loss due to friction, there are always other
head losses due to pipe expansions and contractions, bends,
valves, and other pipe fittings. These losses are usually known
as minor losses (hLm).

 In case of a long pipeline, the minor losses maybe negligible

compared to the friction losses, however, in the case of short
pipelines, their contribution may be significant.
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Losses due to pipe fittings

V2
hLm K
2g
where Typical K values
hLm= minor loss
Type K
K = minor loss coefficient
Exit (pipe to tank) 1.0
V = mean flow velocity
Entrance (tank to pipe) 0.5
90 elbow 0.9
45 elbow 0.4
T-junction 1.8
Gate valve 0.25 - 25
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra
Sudden Enlargement
 As fluid flows from a smaller pipe into a larger pipe through sudden
enlargement, its velocity abruptly decreases; causing turbulence that
generates an energy loss. 2
Va
 The minor loss (hLm)is
hLm  KE
2g
where is KE is the coefficient of expansion, and the values depends on the
ratio of the pipe diameters (Da/Db) as shown below.

Da/Db 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

K 1.00 0.87 0.70 0.41 0.15
Values of KE vs. Da/Db
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra
Sudden Contraction
The energy loss due to a sudden contraction can be calculated
using the following;
Vb 2
hLm  KC
2g
The KC is the coefficient of contraction and the values depends
on the ratio of the pipe diameter (Db/Da) as shown below.

Db/Da 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

K 0.5 0.49 0.42 0.27 0.20 0.0
Values of KC vs. Db/Da
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Energy added and extracted

• A pump is a common device to which mechanical energy is applied
and transferred to the water as total head of the pump.
• The head added is called pump head (Hp), and is a function of flow
rate through the pump.
• On the other hand, fluid motor or turbines are common examples
of devices that extract energy from a fluid, and the head extracted
is called head of turbine (Ht), deliver it in a form of work.
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Denoting the head loss due to friction and minor losses as HL, and the
external energy added/extracted by HE, then the Bernoulli equation
may be rewritten as
P1 V12 P2 V2 2
 z1   HE   z2   H L1 2
g 2g g 2g

HL1-2 = Hp (positive for pump) when the head is added to the fluid, or HE
= Ht (negative for turbine)
the total power (P) of a pump or turbine to HE or vice versa.
P = gQHE
In a pump HE = HP, the value is positive since power is added to the
fluid. In a turbine, HE = Ht is negative and power is extracted from the
flow.
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

The term efficiency is used to denote the ratio of the power delivered by
the pump to the fluid to the power supplied to the pump.

Power delivered to fluid P gQH p

p   
Power supplied to pump Pin Pin
The value of p is less than 1.0.

Similarly,
The efficiency of a turbine is defined as;

Power output from motor Po Po

t   
Power supplied by fluid Pt gQH t

Here again, the value of t is less than 1.0.

 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Pitot and Pitot-Static Tube

Pitot-Tube

 2
p s  p  U   pt
2

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 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Pitot-Static Tube

2  pM
U 


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 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Venturi meter

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©Dr. Avinash Chandra

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 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

• the fluid is accelerated by its passage through a converging cone of

angle 15o-20o.
• The pressure difference between the upstream and the throat is
measured
• The fluid is then retarded in a cone of smaller angle (5º-7º) in which
large proportion of kinetic energy is converted back to pressure
energy.
• The attraction of this meter lies in its high energy recovery so that it
may be used where only a small pressure head is available, though
its construction is expensive.
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 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Friction is neglected, the meter is assumed to be horizontal.

If va and vb are the average upstream and downstream velocities,

respectively, and r is the density of the fluid,

vb2 - va2 = 2(pa - pb)/r

The continuity equation can be written as,
va = (Db/Da)2 vb = b2 vb
where Da = diameter of pipe
Db = diameter of throat of meter
b = diameter ratio, Db/Da
If va is eliminated from above equations, the result is

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 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

• This equation applies strictly to the frictionless flow of non-

compressible fluids.
• To account for the small friction loss between locations a and b is
corrected by introducing an empirical factor Cv.
• The coefficient Cv is determined experimentally. It is called the
venturi coefficient,
• For a well designed venturi, the constant Cv is about 0.98 for
pipe diameters of 2 to 8 inch and about 0.99 for larger sizes.

therefore .......
Cv 2( p a  p b )
 vb 
1  4 

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 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Orifice Meter
• The venturi meter described earlier is a reliable flow
measuring device.
– Furthermore, it causes little pressure loss.

– For these reasons it is widely used, particularly for large-

volume liquid and gas flows.

– However this meter is relatively complex to construct and

hence expensive.

• Especially for small pipelines, its cost seems

prohibitive, so simpler devices such as orifice meters
are used.
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 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

The orifice meter has several practical advantages when

compared to venturi meters.
• Lower cost
• Smaller physical size
• Flexibility to change throat to pipe diameter ratio to
measure a larger range of flow rates

Disadvantage:
• Large power consumption in the form of
irrecoverable pressure loss

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 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Orifice Meter

The orifice meter consists of an

accurately machined and drilled
plate concentrically mounted
between two flanges. The position
of the pressure taps is somewhat
arbitrary.

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 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

• The orifice meter consists of a flat orifice plate with a circular

hole drilled in it.
• There is a pressure tap upstream from the orifice plate and
another just downstream.
• The principle of the orifice meter is identical with that of the
venturi meter.
• Bernoulli's equation provides a basis for correlating the
increase in velocity head with the decrease in pressure head.

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 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

• Similar to venturi meter………

therefore .......
Co 2( p a  pb )
 vb 
1  4 

• where…. b= (orifice dia / tank dia)

• Co = orifice coefficient (0.51-0.61)

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 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Rotameters
Rotameters fall into the category of flow measurement
devices called variable area meters. These devices have
nearly constant pressure and depend on changing cross
sectional area to indicate flow rate. Rotameters are
extremely simple, robust devices that can measure flow
rates of both liquids and gasses.

Fluid flows up through the tapered tube and suspends a

‘float’ in the column of fluid. The position of the float
indicates the flow rate on a marked scale.

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 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Three types of forces must be accounted

for when analyzing rotameter performance:

• Flow Buoyancy
• Gravity
• Buoyancy Gravity

For our analysis neglect drag effect

Flow
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©Dr. Avinash Chandra

49
 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Mass Balance
Assume Gradual Taper
V1S  V2 S
Q
V1  V2 
S
Flow Between Float and Tube
Q S
V3   V1
S  S f  S3
S3 is annular flow area at plane 3
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 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Momentum Balance
Note:
• p3 = p2
• Must account for force due to float

 QV3  V1    p1  p2 S   g zS  V f   f gV f

S  gV f  b   
2
p  Q 
 gz    1   
 S  S3  S 

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 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Mechanical Energy Balance

p
ˆ 1 2
 
W  V3  V1  gz 
2
2


 hf
0

V32
Assume: hf  KR (Base velocity head on smallest flow area)
2

p 
1 2  S 
2
 S 
2

 gz  V1  V1    K RV1   
 2
  2

 2  S3   S3  
 
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 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Combining Momentum and Mechanical Energy Balance

2
 Q   S  gV f  b    1  Q   2
S  
2

  1       1  1  K R   
 S   S3  S  2 S    S3  
 
After Some Manipulation

S Sf 2 gV f  f  
Q  S3
1  K R S S f  
2
Sf

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 ©Dr. Avinash Chandra

Assuming Sf ≈ S a discharge coefficient can be defined

C R  1  K R 
1 2

2 gV f  f  
Q  S 3C R
Sf 

CR must be determined experimentally. As Q increases the float

rides higher, the assumption that Sf = S is poorer, and the previous
expression is more nearly correct.
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