HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

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Definition..
• The science that deals with ways to use liquid (such as
water) when it is moving. (Merriam- Webster
dictionary )

• Hydraulics is the branch of science and technology

which basically deals with flow and conveyance of
liquid (principally water) in pipes or channels.

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Course content
1. Pipe flow
• Laminar flow
• Turbulent flow
• Simple pipe flow problems with solution
• Three reservoir and network of pipe
• Unsteady flow in pipes
2. Open channel flow
• Uniform flow
• Non-uniform flow
3. Mobile boundary channel

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What is pipe flow?
• A pipe is a closed conduit (generally of circular section) which is used
for carrying fluids under pressure.
• The flow in pipe is termed as pipe flow only when the fluid
completely fills the cross-section and there is no free surface of fluids.
• The pipe running partially full behave as open channel flow

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Characteristics of pipe flow
• Flow from one point to another depends on the difference between
these points
• The pipe boundary and viscosity offers resistance to the flow
• Fluid need to do work to overcome this resistance, thus available
energy is consumed, which makes it important to determine the head
loss in pipe
• Resistance offered to the flow depends on the type of flow

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 Pipe flow (incompressible)
Type of flow

•Laminar flow
•Turbulent flow

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 Reynolds experiment (ref, PN MODI)
Small tank filled with dye
Tank filled with water
(maintains constant head)

Experimental observation
a) When the velocity of flow was low , the dye remained in the form of straight and stable filament
passing through glass tube so steadily that it scarcely seems to be in motion.
b) with the increase in velocity of flow a critical state is reached at which the filament of dye showed
irregularities and began of waver.
c) with further increase in velocity of flow the fluctuation in the filament of dye became more intense
and ultimately the dye diffused over the entire cross-section of the tube, due to intermingling of the
particles of flowing fluid.
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 Mathematically,
𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑖
Reynold’s number (Re or NR) = =
𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑣
Inertial force (Fi) = Mass X Acceleration = ρ x L3 x (V/t) = ρ x L2 x V2
𝑉
• Viscous force (Fv) =shear stress X area=τ x A = μ x (dv/dy) x L2 =μx x L2
𝐷
Where, D is the diameter of pipe
𝐹𝑖 𝛒𝐕𝑫 VD
• Thus, Re = = =
𝐹𝑣 𝝁 ν
• Where, μ = dynamic viscosity and ν = kinematic viscosity (μ/ ρ), ρ =
density and τ = shear stress.

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 For pipe flow
• If Re <2000, flow is laminar

• If Re >4000, flow is turbulent

flow

• If 2000≤Re ≤ 4000, flow is

transitional

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 Laminar flow
• In laminar flow the fluid particles move along straight parallel path in layers such that
the path of individual fluid particles do not cross each those of neighbouring particles.
• It occurs at low velocity so that the viscous force predominates the inertial force.
• Smooth flow of one layer of fluid over another
• Velocity at any point remains nearly constant both in magnitude and direction.
• Example
• Underground flow
• Movement of blood in brain
• Rise of water in plants
Laminar flow depends on:
• Viscosity of flow
• Velocity of flow
• Area of surface in contact
• Temperature of fluid
Laminar flow is independent of nature of surface in contact and pressure of fluid flow.
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Laminar flow depends on
• Viscosity of flow
• Velocity of flow
• Area of surface in contact
• Temperature of fluid
Laminar flow is independent of nature of surface in contact and
pressure of fluid flow.

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 STEADY LAMINAR FLOW IN CIRCULAR PIPES—VISCOUS FLOW
HAGEN-POISEUILLE LAW
Assumptions

• The fluid follows Newton's law of viscosity

• The fluid particles adjacent to the pipe will have zero velocity(i.e., no
slip at boundary)

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Let us consider, a small concentric cylindrical fluid element of
radius (r) and length dx as free body. Since the flow is steady and
the size of the cross-section does not change; every particle of fluid
moves without acceleration. Therefore the summation of forces on
the free body in the direction of motion must be equal to zero

(ref, PN MODI)
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 i.e., ∑Fx = 0,

𝜕𝑝
pπr2 – (p + 𝑑𝑥)πr2 – τ x 2πrdx =0
𝑑𝑥

𝜕𝑝
pπr2 -p πr2 - 𝑑𝑥πr2 = τ x 2πrdx
𝑑𝑥

𝜕𝑝 𝑟
τ= (− ) ----------- equation 1>
𝑑𝑥 2
The negative sign shows that pressure decreases in the direction of flow. Equation one indicates that the shear stress
varies linearly across the section. Its valve is zero at center of pipe as r = 0 and maximum at pipe boundary where r= R.
τ 0
𝜕𝑝 𝑅
τ0 = (− )
𝑑𝑥 2
and
τ = τ0 (r/R)
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Let us consider two section 1 and 2 of same pipe of length L. Let p1 and
p2 be the average intensity of pressure acting at the two sections 1 and
2 respectively and V be the mean velocity of the flow in the pipe.
• Applying Bernoulli’s equation in section 1 and 2,
𝑝1 𝑉1^2 𝑝2 𝑉2^2
Z1 + + = Z2 + + + hf
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
Here, Z1 = Z2 and V1 = V2
Therefore,
𝑝1 𝑝2
= + hf
𝛾 𝛾
Or, p1 - p2 = γ hf
Since the pipe is uniform, the pressure gradient will be constant and
hence,
𝜕𝑝 𝑝1−𝑝2 𝛾ℎ𝑓
(− ) = =
𝑑𝑥 𝐿 𝐿

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 𝜕𝑝
Putting the value of (− ) in equation 1
𝑑𝑥
We have,
𝛾ℎ𝑓 𝑟 𝛾ℎ𝑓 𝑅
τ= x and (τo = x )
𝐿 2 𝐿 2
from Newton's law of viscosity,
𝑑𝑣
τ=μx , in this equation the distance y is measured from the boundary.
𝑑𝑦
The radial distance ‘r’ is related to distance y by the relation y = R – r or dy = - dr
(since R is constant)

𝑑𝑣
Therefore, τ = -μ x ………. equation 2
𝑑𝑟

Negative sign indicates that velocity V decreases as r increases. From equation 1

and equation 2,
𝜕𝑝 𝑟 𝑑𝑣
(− ) = μ x (- )
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑟
1 𝜕𝑝 𝑟
Or, dv= ( ) 𝑑𝑟 ……… equation 3
𝜇 𝑑𝑥 2

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 3

……… equation 4

Thus equation 4 becomes

……… equation 5
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 Eq. 5

……… equation 6

from Eq. 5 and 6

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 ……… equation 7
If ‘D’ is the diameter of pipe , then R = D/2

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Again,
Q = V π R2
Therefore from equation 7; we have,

V π R2 =

or, ……… equation 8

From equation 6 and 8,

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From equation 8,

……… equation 9
Equation 9 is known as Hagen- Poisecuille law for circular pipes with laminar flow in it

Again, p1 - p2 = γ hf

32𝜇𝑉𝐿 64 𝐿𝑉 2
therefor, hf = =
𝛾 𝐷2 𝑅𝑒 2𝑔𝐷
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Summary of Hagen-Poisecuille law

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Numerical on Laminar flow
Refer : RK Rajput text book
Refer : RK Rajput text book
Refer : RK Rajput text book
Refer : RK Rajput text book
Q) Liquid having specific gravity 0.9 and μ = 0.057Ns/m^2 is flowing
through a pipe line of 75mm in diameter at the rate of 350 lit/min.
Calculate the center line velocity, the head loss in 300m length of this
pipe and shear stress and the velocity at a point 25mm from center
line.
Refer : Dr. PN Modi text book
 Turbulent flow in pipe

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 Turbulent flow:
• In turbulent flow the fluid motion is irregular and there is a complete mixing of
fluid due to collision of fluid mass with one another. Fluid mass is interchanged
between adjacent layers. This is the most common type of flow that occurs in
nature.
• In turbulent flow inertial force are predominant then viscous forces and fluid
does not flow in layers or lamina.
• Velocity at any point changes both in magnitude and direction.
Turbulent flow depends on
• Square of velocity of flow, Area of surface in contact, temperature of fluid,
Density of fluid and nature of surface in contact
• Is independent of pressure of flow
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 General equation of head loss in pipe flow
(DARCY-WEISBACH equation)
Assumptions
1. Flow is uniform
2. Area of cross-section is constant
3. The mean velocity and its distribution remains unchanged in pipe
flow direction.

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Let us consider a liquid flowing through pipe having diameter D and mean
velocity V as shown in figure below,

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Applying Bernoulli’s equation to section 1 and 2, Thus from equation 1 and 3, we have
We have, 4τo L
𝑉1 2 𝑉2 2
hf =
𝑝1 𝑝2 𝛾𝐷
Z1 + + = Z2 + + + hf hγD
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 further, 4τo = f 𝐿 …. equation 4
Since, V1 = V2 dividing both the sides of equation 4 by (ρ V2 ) / 2:
𝑝1 𝑝2
Z1 + = Z2 + + hf We have,
𝛾 𝛾
𝑝1 𝑝2 8τ0 2hf γ D
hf = Z1 + -Z2 - …equation 1 =
𝛾 𝛾 ρ 𝑉2 𝐿ρ V2
Resolving the forces along the flow direction, 2hf γ D 8τ0
i.e., ∑Fx = 0, Or, f = , where f = is called
𝐿ρ V2 ρ 𝑉2
p1 A1 – p2 A2 + Wsinθ - (τo π D L) = 0 …. equation 2 Darcy’s Weisbach friction factor.
from figure; Thus,
sinθ =
𝑍1−𝑍2
, W = γ x volume = γ x (πD2/ 4) x L Since; γ = ρ x g
𝐿
and A1 = A2 = (πD2/ 4)
Thus, equation 2 becomes,
𝑍1−𝑍2
(p1 – p2) x (πD2/ 4) + γ x (πD2/ 4) x L x
𝐿
= (τo π D L) This equation is called Darcy’s
Dividing both sides by π D2 γ and multiplying both sides by 4, Weisbach equation for frictional loss
we get in pipe.
𝑝1 𝑝2 4 τ0 L
- + Z1 -Z2 = .. equation 3
𝛾 𝛾9/28/2020 𝛾𝐷 39
Note:
4𝑓′ 𝐿𝑉 2
• hf =
2𝑔𝐷
where 𝑓 ′ = f/4, is known as Fanning’s friction factor coefficient
64
• Comparing laminar and turbulent flow head loss we get, f = for
𝑅𝑒
laminar flow
8τ0 8𝑉∗2 τ𝑜
• Again from f = ,f= , where 𝑉∗ =shear velocity =
ρ 𝑉2 𝑉2 ρ

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Q).

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 Minor head losses
• The fluid in a typical piping system passes through various fittings, valves, bends, elbows, tees, inlets, exits,
enlargements, and contractions in addition to the pipes.

• These components interrupt the smooth flow of the fluid and cause additional losses because of the flow
separation and mixing they induce.

• In a typical system with long pipes, these losses are minor compared to the total head loss in the pipes (the
major losses) and are called minor losses.

• The magnitude of minor head loss is very small ass compare to major head loss (in case of long pipe), so
𝑉2
often it is neglected. The value of minor head loss can be expressed as the velocity head ( ) with some
2𝑔

constant K,

𝑉2
i.e., minor head loss = K ( )
2𝑔
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1. Loss of energy due to sudden enlargement
Figure shows a liquid flowing through a pipe, which has sudden
enlargement. Due to sudden enlargement, the flow is
decelerated abruptly and eddies are developed resulting in loss
of energy (or head).

fig. Sudden
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44
 …equation A

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 1
• Thus head loss due to sudden enlargement (he) = (𝑉 − 𝑉2 )2
2𝑔 1
And 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2 , thus equation A can be written as
𝑉12 𝐴1 2 𝑉22 𝐴2
(he) = (1 − ) or ( − 1)2
2𝑔 𝐴2 2𝑔 𝐴1
This equation is known as “ Borda-Carnot” equation for head loss
𝑉2
Thus, he = K ( )
2𝑔

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 1. Loss of energy due to sudden contraction
Due to sudden contraction, the stream lines converge to a minimum
cross-section called Vena-contracta and then expand to fill downstream
pipe

fig. Sudden
contraction
Now, head loss ℎ𝑐 = loss upto vena-contracta + loss due to sudden enlargement beyond
vena-contracta
Or, ℎ𝑐 = negligibly small loss + ℎ𝑒 ,
1
Thus, ℎ𝑐 = (𝑉𝑐 − 𝑉2 )2 ….. equation B
2𝑔
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𝑉𝑐 = ?

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 𝑉2
3. Loss of energy at the entrance of pipe ℎ𝑙 = K ( ) ‘ K= 0.5 for sharped edge
2𝑔
and K = 0.2 for rounded edge
𝑉2
4. Loss of energy at the exit of the pipe ℎ𝑙 = ( ), i.e., K =1
2𝑔

𝑉2
5. Loss of energy in bends ℎ𝑙 = K ( ), K depends upon angle, radius of bend
2𝑔

𝑉2
6. Loss of energy in various fittings ℎ𝑙 = K ( ), K depends upon type of fittings
2𝑔

7. Loss of head due to obstruction in pipe

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 Summary
Q). At a sudden enlargement in a pipe from 240mm to 480mm diameter, the
hydraulic gradient rise by 10mm estimate the rate of flow. (Ans = 32.7 lit/sec)

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 Ans. Power saved = 7.901 W

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Now, friction factor ‘f’ is found to depend
VD k
upon Reynolds number ( ) and , where k
ν D
is the average protrusion of irregularities
projecting from pipe surface.

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 Hydrodynamically smooth and rough boundaries
• The flow outside the laminar sublayer is turbulent, eddies of
various sizes are present which try to penetrate through the
laminar sublayer.
• However, due to greater thickness of the laminar sublayer the
eddies cannot reach the surface irregularities, and thus the
boundary acts as a smooth boundary.
• Such a boundary is known as hydrodynamically smooth
boundary.
• With the increase in Reynolds number the thickness of the
laminar sublayer decreases, and it can even become much
smaller than the average height k, of surface irregularities.
• The irregularities will then project through the laminar
sublayer and the laminar sublayer is completely destroyed.
• The eddies will thus come in contact with the surface
irregularities and large amount of energy loss will take place
such a boundary is known as hydrodynamically rough
boundary.
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 From Nikuradse’s experiments:

𝑹𝒆 𝒇
If < 17; hydrodynamically smooth
𝑹Τ𝒌
𝑹𝒆 𝒇
If > 400; hydrodynamically rough
𝑹Τ𝒌

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 VD
Now, friction factor ‘f’ is found to depend upon Reynolds number ( )
k ν
and , where k is the average protrusion of irregularities projecting from
D
pipe surface.
Note from Nikuradse’s experiment
• For laminar flow as well as for turbulent flow with smooth boundary
the relative roughness (k/D) is unimportant.
• As such for both these cases the friction factor f will be a function of
only the Reynolds number.
• On the other hand for a rough boundary, since viscosity of fluid no
longer plays a significant role, Reynolds number is unimportant.
• Hence, in the case of turbulent flow with rough boundary the
friction factor f will be a function of only the relative roughness
(k/D).

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1. Variation of friction factor for laminar flow
64
f=
𝑅𝑒
2. Variation of friction factor for turbulent flow
A) for smooth pipes
0.316
• 𝑓= 1/4 (Known as Blasius equation valid upto 𝑅𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 105 )
𝑅𝑒
0.221
• 𝑓 = 0.0032 + for 𝑅𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 > 105
𝑅𝑒0.237
B) for rough pipes

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3. For commercial pipes
Colebrook and White developed an empirical equation for commercial pipes
as

𝟏 𝑹 𝑹Τ𝒌
− 𝟐. 𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ( ) = 𝟏.74 -2.0 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 (1+ 18.7 )
𝒇 𝒌 𝑹𝒆 𝒇

Note:
As pipe becomes older the roughness increases due to corrosion. Colebrook
and White showed that boundary roughness increases with time
approximately as:
k = 𝒌𝟎 + 𝜶𝒕
where 𝑘0 = equivalent roughness of new pipe, K = equivalent roughness at
any time t and α = the time rate of increase of roughness
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Moddy’s diagram
L.F. Moddy has plotted Colebrook and white equation which is in the form of ‘f’ vs ‘Re’ curve
for various values of (k/D) or (e/D)

refer; Dr. PN Modi textbook

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 Re = 7.16 * 10^5
k/D = 0.00105
f=?

f = 0.02

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Pipe materials K in mm
Glass, Copper, Brass , Lead smooth
Steel , Wrought Iron 0.045
Asphalted Cast Iron 0.12
Galvanized Iron 0.15
Cast Iron 0.26
Concrete 0.3 to 3.0
Riveted Steel 0.9 to 9.0

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 Numerical
• A smooth wrought iron pipe 200mm in diameter conveys crude oil at
a velocity of 3m/sec. Find the loss of head per 100m length of pipe.
Take ν = 0.5 stoke. (Ans. =6.88m)

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• If a pipe of diameter 350mm and length 75 m, water is flowing at a
velocity of 2.8m/sec. Find head loss due to friction, calculate power
loss and determine power required by pump to maintain flow if its
efficiency is 65%. Take ν = 0.012 stoke.

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• A liquid of specific gravity 0.88 and absolute viscosity 6.533
x10−4 N.s/m2 flows through a pipe of diameter 0.15m at the rate of
60 lit/sec. If the head loss in pipe (100m length) is 4.56m, determine
whether the pipe is rough or smooth.

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• After 10 years of service, an asphalted cast iron water main 0.45m in
diameter is found to require 30% more power to deliver 240 lit/sec
for which it was originally designed. Determine the corresponding
magnitude of the rate of roughness increase α. Take kinematic
viscosity for water as 0.014 stokes.

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 Characteristics of Turbulent Flow

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 Characteristics of turbulent flow
• The turbulent flow is characterized by random irregular and haphazard movement of fluid particles.
• It has been observed during experiment that at any fixed point in turbulent field, the velocity and
consequently the pressure fluctuates with time about a mean value.

Refer; RK Rajput textbook

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• In turbulent flow the fluid particles are in an extreme state of disorder, their
movement is haphazard and large scale eddies are developed, which results in a
complete mixing of the fluid.
• Such irregular motion of fluid particles in turbulent flow is on account of the fact
that at any fixed point in space, the velocity and pressure do not remain constant
with time, but fluctuate in irregular manner.
• In other words, in turbulent flow there are irregular velocity and pressure
fluctuations of high frequency superimposed on the main flow.
• On account of these fluctuations the analytical treatment of turbulent flow is
rendered extremely complicated.
• No complete theory has yet been developed for the analysis of turbulent flow and
one has to depend at some point on experimentally derived information.
• However, in turbulent flow also the mean components of velocity and pressure
may be considered, which may be assumed to have a constant value at any section
if the average are taken over a sufficiently long interval of time.
• In the case of turbulent flow the velocity fluctuations influence the mean motion in
such a way that an additional shear (or frictional) resistance to flow is caused.
• This shear stress produced in turbulent flow is in addition to the viscous shear
stress and it is termed as turbulent shear stress.
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 Shear stress in turbulent flow
• As stated earlier, in turbulent flow velocity fluctuations cause a continuous
interchange of fluid masses between the neighbouring layers, which is
accompanied by a transfer of momentum.
• A large number of lumps of fluid particles move from one fluid layer into
the adjacent layers above and below and get merged in them.
• Since each fluid layer possesses a different velocity, such movement of fluid
particles brings about a transfer of momentum from one layer to another.
• However, the change of momentum is equivalent to the force in a particular
direction. Hence, such momentum transport due to fluctuations results in
developing additional shear stresses of high magnitude between adjacent
layers.
• Thus, shear stress in turbulent flow
= shear stress due to laminar flow + shear stress due to turbulent flow
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In order to determine the magnitude of the turbulent shear stress a
number of semi empirical theories have been developed, they are

1. Boussinesq’s theory (1877)

2. Osborne Reyolnd’s theory (1886)
3. Ludwing Prandtl’s mixing length theory (1925)

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Boussinesq’s theory (1877) foe shear stress in turbulent flow
• J. Boussinesq’s theory, a French mathematician in 1877 developed an expression
for the turbulent shear stress expressed as;
ഥ
𝐝𝑽 ഥ
𝐝𝑽
𝝉𝒕 = 𝜼 = =𝝆𝜺
𝐝𝒚 𝐝𝒚
Where 𝜂 (eta) = eddy viscosity or virtual viscosity and 𝑉ഥ = mean velocity
𝜂
ε= , ρ = density and ε (epsilon) kinematic viscosity
𝜌
• So when Viscous action is also induced the total shear stress may be expressed as
ഥ
d𝑉 ഥ
d𝑉
τ=𝜇 +𝜂
d𝑦 d𝑦
If 𝜂 = 0, flow is laminar.
• the value of 𝜂 depends upon the moment applied by migrating particles and
density of fluid. It’s magnitude vary from 0 to 1000 times of μ
• Since it is difficult to predict eta and epsilon value so, Boussinesq’s hypothesis is
of Limited use
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 Reynold’s theory

𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑣𝑥

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 Ludwing Prandtl’s mixing length theory

From Nikuradse’s experimental results

𝑦2
L =0.4y – 0.44( )
𝑅

9/28/2020 Refer; Dr PN Modi text book 74

 Velocity distribution in turbulent flow

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 Equation 14.23 is also known as Universal velocity distribution equation
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 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑣
• It is obvious from Eq. 14.22, that ( )that is a function of (y/R)
𝑉∗
alone.
• Hence the velocity distribution curve given by Eq. 14.22 appears to be
independent of the nature of the boundary.
• However, the experiments conducted by Fritsch have indicated that the
velocity distribution curves for smooth and rough pipes are identical
over a substantial portion of the pipe except for a narrow region in the
vicinity of the boundary, where the nature of the pipe boundary affects
the velocity distribution curve.
• It may therefore be stated that Prandtl’s equation [Eq. 14.22] applies
only to the turbulent flow in the central region of the pipe.
• Moreover different velocity distribution equations will have to be
derived for the hydrodynamically smooth and rough boundaries as
discribed below.

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9/28/2020 80
From Nikuradse’s experiment
• For smooth boundaries
𝑉∗ 𝑦 11.6ν
when, 𝑦 ′ = δ′ , then = 11.6 , δ′ =
ν 𝑉∗
′ 𝑉∗ 𝑦 ′
and when y = 𝑦 , then, = 0.108
ν
0.108ν δ′
Or, 𝑦′ = =
𝑉∗ 107
0.108ν
Thus putting value of 𝑦′ = in equation 14.24,and rearranging we have,
𝑉∗
𝒗 𝑽∗ 𝒚
= 5.75𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝒐 ( ) + 5.5,
𝑽∗ 𝝂
which is the required equation for velocity distribution in smooth pipes.
From Nikuradse’s experiment this equation is found to be valid for distance y
away from boundary as well.
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From Nikuradse’s experiment

• For rough boundaries

′ 𝑘 𝑉∗ 𝑦
when, 𝑦 = , then = 11.6
30 ν
′ 𝑘
Thus putting value of 𝑦 = in equation 14.24,and rearranging we
30
have,
𝑣 𝑦
= 5.75𝑙𝑜𝑔1𝑜 ( ) + 8.5
𝑉∗ 𝑘
which is the required equation for velocity distribution in rough pipes,
valid for whole region.

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Velocity distribution in terms of mean velocity

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 Numerical

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