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Aircraft Propulsion
MVJ19AE44 Module-1
Introduction
Syed Mohsin
Assistant Professor
Department of Aeronautical Engineering

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 Aircraft Propulsion

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 Learning Objectives
This course will enable students to

1. Understand and apply the basic thermodynamic principles in aircraft propulsion.

2. Understand and solve the problems on turboprop, turbojet and turbofan engines.
3. Acquire knowledge on subsonic and supersonic inlets.
4. Describe the working of combustion chambers and nozzles.
5. Understand the fundamentals of rocket propulsion.

Course outcomes:
Upon completion of the course, students will be able to:
CO211.1 Apply the basic thermodynamic principles and theories in aircraft propulsion.
CO211.2 Understand the thrust generation and performance of turbojets, turbofans and turboprops.
CO211.3 Analyze the performance of inlet for subsonic and supersonic applications
CO211.4 Demonstrate the principle of combustion and distinguish between different types of
combustion chambers
CO211.5 Explain the basic principles of rocket propulsion.

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Module-1
Introduction: Review of thermodynamic principles, Principles of aircraft propulsion, Types of power plants, Working principles of
internal combustion engine, Two stroke and four stroke piston engines, Gas, turbine engines, Cycle analysis of reciprocating engines
and jet engines , advantages and disadvantages, numerical problems

Module-2
Propeller Theories & Jet propulsion: Types of propeller, Propeller thrust: momentum theory, Blade element theories, propeller
blade design, and propeller selection.
Jet Propulsion: Illustration of working of gas turbine engine The thrust equation , Factors affecting thrust , Effect of pressure,
velocity and temperature changes of air entering compressor , Methods of thrust augmentation , Characteristics of turboprop, turbofan
and turbojet , Performance characteristics.

Module-3
Subsonic Inlets
Internal flow and Stall in Subsonic inlets, Boundary layer separation. Major features of external flow near a subsonic inlet. Relation
between minimum area ratio and external deceleration ratio.
Diffuser performance.
Supersonic inlets: Supersonic inlets, starting problem in supersonic inlets, Shock swallowing by area variation, External deceleration.
Modes of inlet operation

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Module-4
Combustion chambers Classification of combustion chambers, important factors affecting combustion chamber design,
Combustion process, Combustion chamber performance Effect of operating variables on performance , Flame tube cooling ,
Flame stabilization , Use of flame holders
Nozzles: Theory of flow in isentropic nozzles, Convergent nozzles and nozzle choking, Nozzle throat conditions. Nozzle
efficiency, Losses in nozzles. Over expanded and under expanded nozzles, Ejector and variable area nozzles, Thrust reversal.

Module-5
Rocket Propulsion
Classification of rockets, Principle of rocket propulsion, Analysis of ideal chemical rocket, The chemical rocket, Solid
propellant rockets, Liquid propellant rockets, Hybrid rockets, Cryogenic rockets nuclear propulsion, Electrodynamic
propulsion, Photon propulsion, Propulsive efficiency.

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 Bridge Material
Aircraft Power plants
Aero engines are machines, which transform the potential energy contained in the fuel and air into kinetic
energy or mechanical energy.
It generates thrust and pushes the aircraft to move forward direction to reach higher level.
Most of the aircraft engines are either run by the piston engine and gas turbines. The aircrafts which are
powered by piston engines comes under (Light civil aviation).

Courtesy :Google images

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 Bridge Material
Working of Piston Engine
It is also called as reciprocating engine. The four stroke piston engine
is the type of engine normally found in an aircraft. The four strokes are
induction, compression, combustion and exhaust.
The combustion chamber consists of a cylinder that is closed at one
end in which a piston slides. The piston is attached to a crankshaft by connecting
rod. The crankshaft transforms the reciprocating (up and down) motion of the
piston into rotary motion. (In general, a piston engine may have from 1 to as
many as 28 cylinders).
The fuel supply for a piston engine consists of a tank, fuel pump and a
device for vaporizing or atomizing the liquid fuel which can either be a
carburetor or, more recently, a fuel injection system. The fuel enters the cylinder
where it vaporizes and is ignited by a spark. The resulting explosion forces the
piston down which turns the crankshaft and the propeller attached to it.

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 Bridge Material
Working of Jet Engines
Non reciprocating aircraft engines, all of which operate on the principle of Jet propulsion, include the
turbojet, turbofan, turboprop, ramjet and rocket engines. The air that enters the intake of the engine is firstly
compressed in a compressor. Fuel is then added to the gas stream thereby increasing the gas temperature and its
volume. The high pressure gases are partially expanded through a turbine which drives the compressor (and
propeller in case of a turboprop engine). The residual gases that are now at intermediate pressure are accelerated by
expansion through a rear facing nozzle, to produce high velocity and the desired thrust.

Courtesy :Google image

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 Bridge Material
Gas Turbine vs. Reciprocating Engine
Both are air breathing type.
Both the engines have same series of events (intake, compression, power and exhaust).
The salient differences between gas turbine and reciprocating engines are:
In a gas turbine engine all the events take place simultaneously i.e. they are continuous.
However, in reciprocating engine each event follows the preceding event.
In a gas turbine engine, each operation in the cycle is performed by a separate component for
which it is designed. However, in a reciprocating engine, all the functions are performed in one component.
Gas turbine engines operates at higher operating speeds due to absence of reciprocating parts.
Due to exclusive use of rotating parts in a gas turbine engine, the vibrations are practically
eliminated.

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 INTRODUCTION

Thermodynamics is the study of energy interactions between systems and the effect of these interactions on the
system properties. Energy transfer between systems takes place in the form of heat and/or work. Thermodynamics
deals with systems in equilibrium

Behaviour of matter can be studied by these two approaches.

In macroscopic approach, certain quantity of matter is considered, without a concern on the events
occurring at the molecular level. These effects can be perceived by human senses or measured by instruments. eg:
pressure, temperature
In microscopic approach, the effect of molecular motion is Considered. eg: At microscopic level the
pressure of a gas is not constant, the temperature of a gas is a function of the velocity of molecules.

Most microscopic properties cannot be measured with common instruments nor can be perceived by human senses

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Definitions and Laws

System: a fixed identity with an arbitrary collection of matter is known as a system. The boundary is an imaginary
surface which separates the system from its surroundings.
System can be either open or closed type

Open system- in which we permit mass to cross the system boundary in either direction (from the system to surroundings
or vice versa).

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Closed system - in which no mass is permitted to cross the system boundary i.e. we would always consider
a system of constant mass. We do permit heat and work to enter or leave but not mass.

Isolated system- - in which there is no interaction between system and the surroundings. It is of fixed
mass and energy, and hence there is no mass and energy transfer across the system boundary

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State: condition of a system defined by its properties, is known as the state of a system .

Process: a change or series of changes in the state of a system.

Cycle: if the initial and final states of a system experiencing a series of processes are identical, it is said to have
executed a cycle.

Pressure: pressure at a point surrounded by an infinitesimal area, ΔA, is the force per unit area. Pressure is usually
denoted by Pascal in SI units or N/m2 or bar.

Density: the density of a medium is the mass of matter(gas) per unit volume. Expressed as kg/m3.

Temperature: temperature is a measure of the thermal potential of a system.

Energy: is the capacity to do work. The state of a system can be changed by adding or removing energy. Heat and work
are different forms of energy in transit.

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Heat is a form of energy which transfers between two systems by virtue of the temperature difference between them.

Work is said to be done by a system on its surroundings when they are moved through a distance by the action of a
force.
Work done = force * distance in the direction of force

First law of thermodynamics

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It can be shown that the quantity (dQ-dW) is independent of the path of the process and it represents a change in the
property of the system. This property is referred to as energy Denoted by the symbol E. Thus

dE=dQ-dW.................(2.3)

Specific heats of gases

The specific heat of a gas is the heat carrying capacity in a process. It is the amount of heat that is required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of the gas by one degree

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In thermodynamic analysis two different types of specific heats are used:
1. Specific heat at constant volume Cv 
2. Specific heat at constant pressure C p 

The specific heat at constant volume Cv  is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the gas by
one degree at constant volume. It is given by

Cv    q   U 
  ..........(2.5)
 T v  T v

The specific heat at constant pressure C p  is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the gas by
one degree at constant pressure. It is given by

C    q 
p
 h 
  ..........(2.6)
 T  p  T  p

The ratio of the two specific heats (γ) is an important parameter and is defined as
Cp
 Cv
..........(2.7)or (2.8)

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 Cp
 Cv
..........(2.7)or (2.8)

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Second law of thermodynamics

The 2nd law of thermodynamics can be stated in a number of ways. Some of them are as follows:
1. Clausius statement: heat cannot on its own flow from a body at lower temperature to a higher temperature.
2. Kelvin- planck`s statement: it is impossible to construct a heat engine which performs a complete cycle and delivers
work exchanging heat from a single source

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Reversible process

A process is reversible if the system and its surroundings can be restored to their initial states by reversing the process.

Irreversible process

An irreversible process is one which does not satisfy the above conditions of reversibility

Adiabatic process:

During the process if there is no heat transfer between the system and the surroundings, it is known as an adiabatic process

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 Zeroth Law Of Thermodynamics

If two systems (say A and B) are in thermal equilibrium with a third system (say
C) separately (that is A and C are in thermal equilibrium; B and C are in thermal
equilibrium) then they are in thermal equilibrium themselves (that is A and B will be in
thermal equilibrium.

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1. A Turbojet power plant using aviation kerosene having a calorific value of 43MJ/kg. The fuel consumption is 0.18 kg per
hour per N of thrust, when the thrust is 9 kN. The aircraft velocity is 500 m/s the mass of air passing through the
compressor is 27kg/s. Calculate the air fuel ratio and overall efficiency

0.18
m f  * 9000
3600

 0.45kg / s

27
Air  fuel  ratio 
0.45

 60 : 1

Thrust  power , PT  F * ci

 9 * 500
 4500kW
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 Heat  input , Q  0.45 * 43000

 19350  kW
PT

Q

4500
 *100
19350

 23.26%

2. In an aircraft power plant, the gas expands through a turbine to an intermediate pressure and on leaving the Turbine it
expands from intermediate pressure to the back pressure generating kinetic energy for jet. All the power of turbine is
absorbed in driving the associated compressor

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In such a unit, gas enters the turbine at 4. bar and 8000 degree Celsius and expands there in to 1.75 bar. Turbine absorbs 75%
of the available enthalpy drop. Expansion occurs through the jet from exhaust condition to 1.03 bar. Assume that the velocity
of gas entering the turbine and jet is negligible. There is no heat loss and conversion of kinetic energy is 100% of the
available adiabatic enthalpy drop. Calculate (i) temperature of the gas entering the jet (nozzle), (ii) velocity of the gas leaving
the jet. Assume Cp=1.05 kJ/kgK and gamma=1.38

Temperature of Gas entering the Nozzle,

  
  
T04 T03 1T  1 1 
  1 

    
  

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   
  
1
T04 1073 10.75  1 
   4.5 
0.275 
   
 1.75  
  

 888.92 K

Velocity leaving the nozzle

c j  2C p T04  T5 

 
 
1
c j  2 *1.05 * 888.92 * 1  
  1.75  0.2754

   
  1.03  

 503.2  m / s

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3. The effective jet exit velocity from a jet engine is 2700 m/s. The forward flight velocity is 1350m/s and the air flow rate
is 78.6 kg/s. Calculate
1. Thrust
2. Thrust power
3. Propulsive efficiency
ci
a
cj
1350

2700

 0.5

Thrust , F  m a c j  ci 

 78.6 * 2700  1350

 106110  N

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 ThrustPower  F * ci

 106110 *1350

143.25 *106  W

2a
p 
a 1

2 * 0.5

1.5

 0.6667

66.7%

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 Aircraft Propulsion
Propulsion is an energy which creates force from the engine to make the aircraft move forward.
On airplanes, thrust is usually generated through some application of Newton's third law of action and
reaction.
A gas, or working fluid, is accelerated by the engine, and the reaction to this acceleration produces a force
on the engine.

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 Aircraft Propulsion
Thrust to propel an aircraft forward is based on the Newton’s third law of motion, which states that for
every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
The forward force depends on the mass of air expelled and its velocity.
Two basic means are used to provide thrust for an aircraft in flight:
Propeller
Jet Propulsion
In propeller driven aircraft either a piston driven engine or a turboprop engine is used to drive a propeller
to push air backwards.
In jet propulsion, there is no propeller so forward thrust is provided by the discharge of high speed gases
through a rear-facing nozzle.

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 Contd.
Direct Reaction Propulsion:
All the gas kinetic energy is used for propulsion i.e. thrust (rockets and ramjets).
The gas kinetic energy is partially used for propulsion and the rest is transformed into mechanical energy
(turbojets).

Indirect Reaction propulsion:

The gas kinetic energy is almost totally transformed into mechanical energy i.e. power (turboprop and
turbo shaft engines).

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 Recalling Earlier Concepts

Aircraft Power plants

Aero engines are machines, which transform the potential energy contained in the fuel and air into kinetic
energy or mechanical energy.
It generates thrust and pushes the aircraft to move forward direction to reach higher level.
Most of the aircraft engines are either run by the piston engine and gas turbines. The aircrafts which are
powered by piston engines comes under (Light civil aviation).

Courtesy :Google images

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 Recalling Earlier Concepts
Comprehensive Questions

Classification of Power Plants

Classification by :

Reciprocating engines:
Petrol engine
Diesel engine

Based on Arrangement:
•In line engine
•V engine
• Horizontal engine
•Radial engine

Gas turbine engines

•Turbo prop
•Turbo shaft
•Turbofan
•Turbo jet

Number Of Engines
 Single Engine
 Two Engine
 Multi Engine Courtesy :Google images

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Recalling Earlier Concepts

Courtesy :Google images

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Recalling Earlier Concepts

Contd.
Location Of The Engines
 Nose
 Fuselage
 Jet Engine Submerged In Wing
 Rear mounted

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 Working of Piston Engine
It is also called as reciprocating engine. The four stroke piston engine
is the type of engine normally found in an aircraft. The four strokes are
induction, compression, combustion and exhaust.
The combustion chamber consists of a cylinder that is closed at one
end in which a piston slides. The piston is attached to a crankshaft by connecting
rod. The crankshaft transforms the reciprocating (up and down) motion of the
piston into rotary motion. (In general, a piston engine may have from 1 to as
many as 28 cylinders).
The fuel supply for a piston engine consists of a tank, fuel pump and a
device for vaporizing or atomizing the liquid fuel which can either be a
carburetor or, more recently, a fuel injection system. The fuel enters the cylinder
where it vaporizes and is ignited by a spark. The resulting explosion forces the
piston down which turns the crankshaft and the propeller attached to it.

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 Working of Jet Engines
Non reciprocating aircraft engines, all of which operate on the principle of Jet propulsion, include the
turbojet, turbofan, turboprop, ramjet and rocket engines. The air that enters the intake of the engine is firstly
compressed in a compressor. Fuel is then added to the gas stream thereby increasing the gas temperature and its
volume. The high pressure gases are partially expanded through a turbine which drives the compressor (and
propeller in case of a turboprop engine). The residual gases that are now at intermediate pressure are accelerated by
expansion through a rear facing nozzle, to produce high velocity and the desired thrust.

Courtesy :Google image

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 Gas Turbine vs. Reciprocating Engine
Both are air breathing type.
Both the engines have same series of events (intake, compression, power and exhaust).
The salient differences between gas turbine and reciprocating engines are:
In a gas turbine engine all the events take place simultaneously i.e. they are continuous.
However, in reciprocating engine each event follows the preceding event.
In a gas turbine engine, each operation in the cycle is performed by a separate component for
which it is designed. However, in a reciprocating engine, all the functions are performed in one component.
Gas turbine engines operates at higher operating speeds due to absence of reciprocating parts.
Due to exclusive use of rotating parts in a gas turbine engine, the vibrations are practically
eliminated.

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 Comprehensive Questions

Types of Gas Turbine Engines

Gas turbine engines fall into two categories
Reaction engine: where the thrust is produced directly from the acceleration of flow of hot gases
Torque engine: in this type of engine, torque is produced first and a propeller or a helicopter rotor is incorporated
which converts this torque into thrust.
Reaction engines:
•Rocket
•Ramjet
•Turbo jet.
•Turbo fan
Torque turbine engines:
•Turbo prop
•Turbo shaft

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 Recalling Earlier Concepts
Comprehensive Questions

Major components of Gas Turbine Engines

Major Components: Shaft
Air Intake (Inlet)
Compressor Combustion chamber
Combustion Chamber (Burner)
Turbine
Exhaust Duct

Courtesy :Google images

inlet compressor turbine exhaust

Combustion chamber
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 Contd.
Air Intake:
For subsonic aircraft, the inlet is a duct which is required to ensure smooth airflow into the engine despite
air approaching the inlet from directions other than straight ahead.. The duct length is minimized to reduce drag and
weight.

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 Contd.
For supersonic aircraft, the inlet has features such as cones and ramps to produce the most efficient series
of shockwaves. The air slows down from the flight speed to subsonic velocity through the shockwaves, then to about
half the speed of sound at the compressor through the subsonic part of the inlet.

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 Contd.
Compressor:
The main function of a compressor is to increase the pressure of the mass of air received from the air inlet
duct and discharge it into the combustion chamber at proper temperature, pressure and velocity conditions.
The secondary function is to supply bleed air required for various purposes in the engine and
the aircraft e.g. cabin pressurization, air-conditioning, anti icing, etc.

Types:
Centrifugal flow compressor
Axial flow compressor

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 Contd.
Centrifugal flow compressor- compress the air by accelerating it outwards and perpendicular to longitudinal axis of
the engine. Used in smaller engines where compression ratio is not a key factor. Amount of thrust achieved is
limited because of compression ratio restriction.

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 Contd.
Centrifugal flow compressor-
Advantages:
Simple to manufacture coupled with low cost.
Low starting power requirements.
Low weight.
Good efficiency over a wide range of rotational speeds.
High pressure rise per stage, which may be up to 10:1 to 15:1 in a dual stage.
Disadvantages:
Large frontal area.
More than two stages are not practical because of the energy losses between stages.

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 Contd.
Axial flow compressor- air flow is parallel to the axis of rotation in the axial compressor. It may have one, two or
three spools.
A spool is defined as a group of compressor stages, a shaft and one or two turbine stages rotating at the
same speed.

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 Contd.
Combustion Chamber:
Located between the compressor and the turbine. Always arranged coaxially with the compressor and
turbine. It consists of an outer casing, an inner liner, a fuel injection system, an ignition system and fuel drainage
system to drain-off unburned fuel after engine shutdown.
Courtesy :Google images

The primary function is to burn the fuel-air

mixture, thereby adding heat energy to the air.
Types:
Can types.
Annular type.
Can-Annular type.

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 Contd.
The combustion chamber must:
Provide the means for mixing the fuel and the air to ensure good combustion.
Burn this mixture efficiently.
Cool the hot combustion products to a temperature which the turbine blades can withstand under operating
conditions.
Deliver the hot gases to the turbine section.

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 Contd.
Turbine:
The function of a turbine is to drive the compressor and
engine accessories by extracting a portion of the pressure and
kinetic energy from the high temperature combustion gases. In case
of a turboprop engine, it drives the propeller also.
In a typical jet engine, about 75% of the power produced
internally is used to drive the compressor and the remaining power
is used to produce thrust.
Regardless of the types of compressor used, all turbines
are of axial-flow design. They consist of one or more stages located
immediately after the combustion section.

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 Contd.
Exhaust Duct:
The exhaust duct takes the relatively high pressure and low velocity gas leaving the turbine wheel and
accelerates this gas flow to sonic or supersonic speeds through the nozzle at its rear.
Convergent exhaust ducts. (< MACH 1)
Divergent exhaust ducts. ( >>>>>MACH 10-25)
Convergent-divergent (C-D) exhaust ducts. (>MACH 1)

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 Contd.
Convergent exhaust nozzle:
The rear opening of the exhaust duct is the exhaust nozzle. The nozzle acts as an orifice. May be fixed
or variable (open or close automatically with increase in the fuel flow) in area.
Convergent exhaust nozzle accelerates the exhaust gases as they leave the engine. The velocity of the
gases within a convergent exhaust duct is usually held to a subsonic speed.

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 Contd.
Convergent-Divergent exhaust nozzle:
When a divergent duct is employed in combination with a conventional exhaust duct, it is called a C-D
exhaust duct. Whenever the pressure ratio across an exhaust nozzle is high enough to produce gas velocities which
might exceed Mach 1.0 at the engine exhaust nozzle, more thrust can be gained by using a C-D types of nozzle.

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 Multiple choice questions

Which of the following is correct?

a) Typically, higher bypass ratio will give higher efficiency
b) Higher bypass ratio always decreases efficiency
c) Lift is equal to weight always
d) Thrust required is the same as thrust available

What is the limitation of current engine design?

a) Turbine inlet temperature
b) Inlet flow velocity reduction limitation
c) Flow velocity over wing
d) Expansion fan only

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 Multiple choice questions

What do you mean by overall pressure ratio?

a) Ratio of pressure at engine exhaust and inlet front face
b) Ratio of dynamic to normal pressure
c) Total pressure divided by stagnation pressure
d) Stagnation pressure divided by dynamic pressure

At low subsonic speed, we should select _________

a) low bypass Turbofan engine
b) turboprop always
c) always use ram jet
d) subsonic speed cannot be achieved

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 Turbojet Engine

THRUST

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 Comprehensive Questions
Turbojet engine
The turbojet is an air breathing jet engine, usually used in aircraft. It consists of a gas turbine with a propelling
nozzle.
The various components of a turbojet engine are:
•An air inlet/ intake (diffuser)
•Compressor
•Combustion chamber
•Turbine
•Exhaust nozzle
Principle of operation
AN INTAKE, is needed in front of the engine to help direct the incoming air smoothly into the moving compressor
blades. It also coverts the kinetic energy of the incoming air into static pressure rise

The COMPRESSOR used in a turbojet engine can be either centrifugal or axial. The incoming air from the intake
moves into the compressor where the air is compressed to very high pressure ( about 3-12 times its original
pressure)

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 Turbojet engine
• This high pressure air then enters the COMBUSTION CHAMBER where fuel is added in metered quantity. As a
result of which combustion takes place.
The combustion of fuel air mixture produces hot gases of very high temperatures and pressures.

•These hot gases then pass through a TURBINE section, where the gases gets expanded
• The turbine is directly connected to the compressor through a shaft. And the main function of the turbine is to
provide power, to drive the compressor and the auxiliaries..

•After the gases leave the turbine they expand further in the NOZZLE SECTION, in the nozzle section , the
velocities of the exhaust gases increases to very high values and are ejected into the atmosphere. Thereby
producing thrust

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 The turbojet characteristics and uses are as follows:

1. Low thrust at low forward speeds

2. Relatively high, thrust-specific fuel consumption (TSFC) at low altitudes and airspeeds, a disadvantage
that decreases as altitude and airspeed increase
3. Long takeoff roll
4. Small frontal area, resulting in low drag and reduced ground-clearance problems
5. Lightest specific weight (weight per pound of thrust produced)
6. Ability to take advantage of high ram-pressure ratios

These characteristics suggest that the turbojet engine would be best for high-speed, high-altitude, long-
distance flights.

67
 Turboprop Engine
A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives an aircraft propeller.
In contrast to a turbojet, the engine's exhaust gases do not contain enough energy to create significant thrust, since
almost all of the engine's power is used to drive the propeller.

THRUST 80-90-
%
THRUST
5-10%

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 Turboprop Engine

In its simplest form a turboprop consists of the following components:

Propeller
Intake,
Compressor
Combustor,
Turbine and
Propelling nozzle.

Principle of operation:
• Air is drawn into the intake and compressed by the compressor.
•Fuel is then added to the compressed air in the combustor, where the fuel-air mixture then combusts.
•The hot combustion gases expand through the turbine. Some of the power generated by the turbine is used to drive the compressor.
The rest is transmitted through the reduction gearing to the propeller.
• Further expansion of the gases occurs in the propelling nozzle, where the gases exhaust to atmospheric pressure.
•The propelling nozzle provides a relatively small proportion of the thrust generated by a turboprop.
• In a turboprop engine, the turbine extracts much more power because the turbine is to provide power for both the compressor
and the propeller

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 The turboprop characteristics and uses are as follows:

1. High propulsive efficiency at low airspeeds, which results in shorter takeoff rolls but falls off rapidly as
airspeed increases.The engine is able to develop high thrust at low airspeeds because the propeller can
accelerate large quantities of air at zero forward velocity of the airplane. A discussion of propulsive efficiency
follows in the next chapter.
2. More complicated design and heavier weight than a turbojet
3. Lowest TSFC
4. Large frontal area of propeller and engine combination that necessitates longer landing gears for low-wing
airplanes but does not necessarily increase parasitic drag
5. Possibility of efficient reverse thrust

70
 Outer covering or the Nacelle
Turbofan Engine

A turbofan engine has a large fan at the front, which sucks in air. Most of the air flows around the outside of the engine,
making it quieter and giving more thrust at low speeds. Most of today's airliners are powered by turbofans.

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 Contd.

In a turbojet all the air entering the intake passes through the gas generator (engine core section) which is
composed of the compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine. However In a turbofan engine only a portion of the
incoming air (primary air) goes into the combustion chamber. The remaining air or secondary air or the BYPASS
AIR leave separately around the engine core and finally mixes with the exhaust gases at the rear end of the engine

The objective of this sort of bypass system is to increase thrust without increasing fuel consumption. It
achieves this by increasing the total air-mass flow and reducing the velocity within the same total energy supply.

T  m V2  V1 
Courtesy :Google images

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 Comprehensive Questions
Turbofan Engine
A Turbofan engine consists of the following components:

•A ducted fan at the inlet

•Compressor
•Combustion chamber
•Turbine
•Exhaust nozzle

Principle of operation:

•The first part of the turbofan is the ducted fan.

•The fan, which almost always is made of titanium blades, sucks in huge quantities of air into the engine.
•The air moves through two parts of the engine. Some of the air (primary air) is directed into the engine's core, where the
combustion will occur. The rest of the air, called "bypass air", is moved around the outside of the engine core through a duct.
•This bypass air creates additional thrust, cools the engine, and makes the engine quieter by blanketing the exhaust air that's
exiting the engine. In today's modern turbofans, bypass air produces the majority of an engine's thrust.

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 Contd.

•The primary air from the inlet section now flows into the Compressor section which can be either centrifugal type or axial type.
•As the air flows through the compressor, its pressure is increased to higher values as the air is compressed.

•This high pressure air now enters the Combustion chamber where metered quantity of fuel is injected.
•Combustion of Fuel and Compressed Air occurs which produces enormous amounts of Exhaust gases

•These exhaust gases produced due to combustion now flow across the Turbine blades where the gases expand
•The turbine is directly connected to the compressor through a shaft. And the main function of the turbine is to provide power, to drive
the compressor and the auxiliaries

•After the gases leave the turbine , the primary air gets further expanded in the Nozzle section
•In a turbo fan engine, at the nozzle section both primary air exhaust and the secondary air or (BYPASS AIR) reattach at the rear end
and produce the additional thrust require.

•This ratio of Secondary air flow (air flow through the outside or duct) to the Primary airflow(airflow through the engine core ) is
referred as BYPASS RATIO

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 Contd.
Bypass Ratio:
The bypass ratio (BPR) of a turbofan engine is the ratio between the mass flow rate of air drawn through
the fan disk that bypasses the engine core (un-combusted air) to the mass flow rate passing through the engine
core. For example, a 10:1 bypass ratio means that 10 kg of air passes around the core for every 1 kg of air passing
through the core.

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 The turbofan characteristics and uses are as follows:

1. Increased thrust at forward speeds similar to a turboprop results in a relatively short takeoff. However.
unlike the turboprop, the turbofan thrust is not penalized with increasing airspeed, up to approximately Mach
with current fan designs.
2. Weight falls between the turbojet and turboprop.
3. Ground clearances are less than turboprop but not as good as turbojet.
4. TSFC and specific weight fall between turbojet and turboprop resulting in
increased operating economy and aircraft range over the turbojet.
5. Considerable noise level reduction of 10 to 20 percent over the turbojet reduces acoustic fatigue in
surrounding aircraft parts and is less objectionable to people on the ground.

76
 Contd.
The flow from the fan nozzle, rather than the core exhaust from the hot nozzle, produces most of the thrust
in high-bypass designs. Bypass provides a lower thrust specific fuel consumption. Also, the lower exhaust velocities
reduce jet noise. High bypass designs are the dominant type for commercial passenger aircraft and both civilian
and military jet transports.
Military combat aircraft usually use engines with low bypass ratios to compromise between fuel economy
and the requirements of combat: high power-to-weight ratios, supersonic performance, and the ability to use
afterburners, all of which are more compatible with low bypass engines.

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 Turbo shaft Engine
A turbo shaft engine is a variant of a jet engine that has been optimized to produce shaft power to drive
machinery instead of producing thrust. Turbo shaft engines are most commonly used in applications that require a
small, but powerful, light weight engine, inclusive of helicopters and auxiliary power units.
A turbo shaft engine uses the same principles as a turbojet to produce energy, that is, it incorporates a
compressor, combustor and turbine within the gas generator of the engine.
The primary difference between the turbo shaft and the turbojet is that an additional power section,
consisting of turbines and an output shaft, has been incorporated into the design.

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 Ramjets
Introduction
A ramjet, sometimes referred to as a flying stovepipe or an athodyd (an abbreviation
of aero thermodynamic duct), is a form of air breathing jet engine that uses the engine's forward motion to compress
incoming air without an axial compressor.

Because ramjets cannot produce thrust at zero airspeed, they cannot move an aircraft from a standstill. A ramjet-
powered vehicle, therefore, requires an assisted take-off like a rocket assist to accelerate it to a speed where it begins
to produce thrust.

Ramjets work most efficiently at supersonic speeds around Mach 3 (2,300 mph; 3,700 km/h). This type of engine
can operate up to speeds of Mach 6 (4,600 mph; 7,400 km/h).

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 Ramjets
Working

The fact of obtaining very high pressure ratios of about 8 to 10 by RAM compression has made it possible a jet engine without a mechanical
compressor

A typical ramjet engine consists of the following:

I. Supersonic diffuser
II. Subsonic diffuser
III. Combustion chamber
IV. Nozzle section
Both supersonic and subsonic diffusers convert the kinetic energy of the entering air into pressure rise.
This energy transformation is called RAM effect, and the pressure rise is called RAM pressure Courtesy :Google images

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 Ramjets
The principle of operation is as follows:

• Air from the atmosphere enters at very high speeds and its velocity gets reduced initially at the supersonic diffuser, thereby
its static pressure increases.

•The air then enters the subsonic diffuser where its velocity decreases further causing an increase in more pressure rise

•The high pressure air then enters the combustion chamber, where the fuel is injected by suitable injectors that results in the
combustion of fuel air mixture

•The exhaust gases then expand in the exhaust section of the engine. The exhaust gases will leave the engine at higher
velocities around Mach 4-5

•Since the ramjet engine cannot operate under static conditions, to initiate its operation, the ramjet must be launched from an
auxiliary means (launch vehicle is required)

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 Scramjets
A scramjet (supersonic combusting ramjet) is a variant of a ramjet air breathing jet engine in which
combustion takes place in supersonic airflow.
As in ramjets, a scramjet relies on high vehicle speed to forcefully compress the incoming air before combustion, but
a ramjet decelerates the air to subsonic velocities before combustion, while airflow in a scramjet is supersonic
throughout the entire engine. This allows the scramjet to operate efficiently at extremely high speeds.

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 Scramjets
• The fact of obtaining very high pressure ratios of about 8 to 10 by RAM compression has made it possible a jet
engine without a mechanical compressor.
• A scramjet engine is supersonic combusting ramjet in which combustion takes place at supersonic speeds.
• Scramjet engines operate on the same principle as the ramjet, but does not decelerate the flow to subsonic
velocities

A typical ramjet engine consists of the following:

I. Supersonic diffuser
II. Combustion chamber
III. Nozzle section
The principle of operation is as follows:

•Air from the atmosphere enters at very high speeds and its velocity gets reduced at the supersonic diffuser, thereby
its static pressure increases. Shock waves are generated in this section of the engine
•

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 Scramjets

•The high pressure air then enters the combustion chamber, where the fuel is injected by suitable injectors that results in the
combustion of fuel air mixture. The combustion in a scramjet engine occurs at supersonic conditions

•The exhaust gases then expand in the exhaust section of the engine. The exhaust gases will leave the engine at higher
velocities around Mach 6-8

•Since the scramjet engine cannot operate under static conditions, to initiate its operation, the scramjet must be launched
from an auxiliary means (launch vehicle is required)

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 Multiple choice questions

Turbofan engine uses a large fan at inlet to ________

a) increase efficiency of the engine
b) increase flow velocity
c) increase wing tip lift
d) increase tailplane lift

For supersonic jet, C – D nozzle is used for the acceleration of exhaust.

a) True
b) False

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 Multiple choice questions

Which of the following is correct?

a) Compressor consumes work produced by turbine
b) Compressor produces work to drive shaft
c) Compressor increases velocity of the flow
d) Lift is always same as weight

Which of the following is a type of compressor?

a) Centrifugal compressor
b) Incline compressor
c) Flap
d) Rudder compressor

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Piston engine

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OTTO CYCLE

An Otto cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle that describes the functioning of a typical spark ignition piston
engine. It is the thermodynamic cycle most commonly found in automobile engines.

The isentropic process of compression or expansion implies that there will be no inefficiency (loss of mechanical
energy), and there be no transfer of heat into or out of the system during that process.

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The processes are described by:

Process 0–1 a mass of air is drawn into piston/cylinder arrangement at constant pressure.

Process 1–2 is an adiabatic (isentropic) compression of the charge as the piston moves from bottom dead center (BDC)
to top dead center (TDC).

Process 2–3 is a constant-volume heat transfer to the working gas from an external source while the piston is at top
dead center. This process is intended to represent the ignition of the fuel-air mixture and the subsequent rapid burning.

Process 3–4 is an adiabatic (isentropic) expansion (power stroke).

Process 4–1 completes the cycle by a constant-volume process in which heat is rejected from the air while the piston is
at bottom dead center.

Process 1–0 the mass of air is released to the atmosphere in a constant pressure process.

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DIESEL CYCLE

The Diesel cycle is a combustion process of a reciprocating internal combustion engine. In it, fuel is ignited by
heat generated during the compression of air in the combustion chamber, into which fuel is then injected. This is
in contrast to igniting the fuel-air mixture with a spark plug as in the Otto cycle (four-stroke/petrol)
engine. Diesel engines are used in aircraft, automobiles, power generation, diesel-electric locomotives, and both
surface ships and submarines.

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The image shows a p-V diagram for the ideal Diesel cycle; where p is pressure and V the volume or v the specific
volume if the process is placed on a unit mass basis. The idealized Diesel cycle assumes an ideal gas and ignores
combustion chemistry, exhaust- and recharge procedures and simply follows four distinct processes:

•1→2 : isentropic compression of the fluid (blue)

•2→3 : reversible constant pressure heating (red)
•3→4 : isentropic expansion (yellow)
•4→1 : reversible constant volume cooling (green)

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The Brayton cycle is a thermodynamic cycle named after George Brayton that describes the workings of a constant-
pressure heat engine. The original Brayton engines used a piston compressor and piston expander, but more modern gas
turbine engines and airbreathing jet engines also follow the Brayton cycle. Although the cycle is usually run as an open
system (and indeed must be run as such if internal combustion is used), it is conventionally assumed for the purposes
of thermodynamic analysis that the exhaust gases are reused in the intake, enabling analysis as a closed system.
The engine cycle is named after George Brayton (1830–1892), the American engineer who developed it originally for
use in piston engines, although it was originally proposed and patented by Englishman John Barber in 1791.[1] It is also
sometimes known as the Joule cycle. The reversed Joule cycle uses an external heat source and incorporates the use of a
regenerator. One type of Brayton cycle is open to the atmosphere and uses an internal combustion chamber; and another
type is closed and uses a heat exchanger.

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Gas turbines are also Brayton engines, with three components: a gas compressor, a burner (or combustion chamber), and
an expansion turbine.

Ideal Brayton cycle:

isentropic process – ambient air is drawn into the compressor, where it is pressurized.
isobaric process – the compressed air then runs through a combustion chamber, where fuel is burned, heating that air—a
constant-pressure process, since the chamber is open to flow in and out.
isentropic process – the heated, pressurized air then gives up its energy, expanding through a turbine (or series of
turbines). Some of the work extracted by the turbine is used to drive the compressor.
isobaric process – heat rejection (in the atmosphere).

Actual Brayton cycle:

adiabatic process – compression
isobaric process – heat addition
adiabatic process – expansion
isobaric process – heat rejection

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 Brayton cycle
Since fresh air enters the compressor at the beginning and exhaust are thrown out at the end, this cycle is
an open cycle.
The Brayton cycle is thermodynamic cycle named after George bailey Brayton. The Brayton cycle is
a thermodynamic cycle that describes the workings of a constant pressure heat engine. The original Brayton engines
used piston-compressor and expander systems, but more modern gas turbine engines and air breathing jet
engines also follow the Brayton cycle.

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 Brayton cycle
Gas turbines are also Brayton engines. This also has three components: a gas compressor, a burner (or combustion chamber), and
an expansion turbine.

Ideal Brayton cycle:

isentropic process – ambient air is drawn into the compressor, where it is pressurized.
isobaric process – the compressed air then runs through a combustion chamber, where fuel is burned, heating that air—a constant-
pressure process, since the chamber is open to flow in and out.
isentropic process – the heated, pressurized air then gives up its energy, expanding through a turbine (or series of turbines). Some of
the work extracted by the turbine is used to drive the compressor.
isobaric process – heat rejection (in the atmosphere).

Actual Brayton cycle:

adiabatic process – compression

isobaric process – heat addition
adiabatic process – expansion
isobaric process – heat rejection

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 Brayton cycle

1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)

2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection

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 Comparative Merits and Limitations of various Gas Turbine Engines
.
Turbo prop Engine:
Advantages:
•On account of higher thrust at low speeds the take off roll is short requiring shorter runway
•Propulsive efficiency within the range of operation is high

Disadvantages:
•Application is limited to lower speed and altitudes
•On account of large diameter propeller the landing gears have to be longer
•Higher weight per unit thrust
•The Thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC) based on thrust is low

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 Comparative Merits and Limitations of various Gas Turbine Engines
.
Turbojet Engine:
Advantages:
•Suitable for long distance flights at higher speeds and altitudes
•Lower frontal area and shorter landing gears
•The power to weight ratio of a turbo jet is about 4 times that of a propeller system having reciprocating engine
•Re heat can be employed for increased thrust (AFTER BURNERS)
•TSFC is comparatively higher at lower speeds and altitudes

Disadvantages:
•Take off roll is longer requiring longer runway
•Uneconomical on short distance flights
•Lower thrust and propulsive efficiency at lower speeds

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 Comparative Merits and Limitations of various Gas Turbine Engines
.
Turbofan Engine:
Advantages:
•Short take off roll due to increased thrust at low speeds
•Comparatively quieter engine
•Weight per unit thrust is lower than the turboprop engine
•Thrust is higher than that in turbojet engine
•TSFC is higher compared to turboprop engine

Disadvantages:
•Increased frontal area and drag
•Engine is heavier and complicated compared to turbojet engine
•Lower speed limit(M<1) than that of the turbojet engine

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 Comparative Merits and Limitations of various Gas Turbine Engines
.
Ramjet Engine:
Advantages:
•High temperatures can be employed
•In the absence of rotating machinery, its construction is very simple
•It can operate efficiently at high supersonic mach numbers
•It provides high thrust per unit weight

Disadvantages:
•It requires a launching device at supersonic speed
•It is unsuitable for subsonic speed
•It has low thermal efficiency and high TSFC

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 Comparative Merits and Limitations of various Gas Turbine Engines
.
Scramjet Engine:
Advantages:
•High temperatures can be employed
•In the absence of rotating machinery, its construction is very simple
•It can operate efficiently at high supersonic mach numbers
•It provides high thrust per unit weight
•Very high velocities up to Mach 6-8 can be achieved

Disadvantages:
•It requires a launching device at supersonic speed
•It is unsuitable for subsonic speed
•It has low thermal efficiency and high TSFC
•Good insulation material is required

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 Multiple choice questions

A typical turbine engine consists of __________

a) combustion chamber, turbine and compressor
b) only turbine
c) only compressor and turbine
d) turbine and combustion chamber only

What is the function of a compressor?

a) To increase pressure and temperature
b) To increase velocity of flow
c) To expand flow
d) To generate work

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 Multiple choice questions

What is the use of Turbine?

a) Generate work to drive shaft
b) To compress the flow
c) To increase pressure
d) To increase temperature

Which of the following is correct?

a) Compressor consumes work produced by turbine
b) Compressor produces work to drive shaft
c) Compressor increases velocity of the flow
d) Lift is always same as weight

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 Multiple choice questions

Turbofan engine uses a large fan at inlet to ________

a) increase efficiency of the engine
b) increase flow velocity
c) increase wing tip lift
d) increase tailplane lift

Determine thrust power if aircraft velocity is 150 m/s and thrust force is 1000N.
a) 150KW
b) 1500W
c) 12.056MW
d) 0.0

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 Module-1_Quiz-1

https://forms.office.com/r/Df9BUMTVGu

Module-1_Quiz-2

https://forms.office.com/r/2DdNHNrDCw

105
 Content Beyond Syllabus

Propeller Fundementals- Introduction to Aerospace Propulsion by Prof Bhaskar Roy & Prof AM Pradeep,
Department of Aerospace Engineering, IIT Bombay

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vij7qWdmLrI

Thrust Reversal-Jet Propulsion by Prof Bhaskar Roy & Prof AM Pradeep, Department of Aerospace
Engineering, IIT Bombay

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4-QTUpaePtA&t=2989s

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 Innovative Topics

Gas Turbine Engines- ATPL Training Video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TkB23CAJ8OA&list=PLthUARlELoUXumrd7FuyftPNsec7ea2KY&index=1

Air Intakes-ATPL Training Video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yHnZBfGA2Rs&list=PLthUARlELoUXumrd7FuyftPNsec7ea2KY&index=4

Compressors-ATPL Training Video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wLbAuoZmw_M&list=PLthUARlELoUXumrd7FuyftPNsec7ea2KY&index=5

Turbine Assembly-ATPL Training Video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ic3L4q4HrFE&list=PLthUARlELoUXumrd7FuyftPNsec7ea2KY&index=10

Exhaust Systems-ATPL Training Video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BJV_a7lx1TQ&list=PLthUARlELoUXumrd7FuyftPNsec7ea2KY&index=11

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 Case Study

Southwest Airlines Flight 1380

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ll3HnxBWDwM

Abstract: Southwest Airlines Flight 1380 was a Boeing 737-7H4 that experienced a failure in the left
CFM56-7B engine after departing from New York–LaGuardia Airport en route to Dallas Love Field on
April 17, 2018. The engine cowl was broken in the failure and cowl fragments damaged the fuselage,
causing rapid depressurization of the aircraft after damaging a cabin window. Other fragments caused
damage to the wing. The crew conducted an emergency descent and diverted to Philadelphia International
Airport. One passenger was partially ejected from the aircraft and later died. Eight other passengers
received minor injuries. The aircraft was substantially damaged.
 FDP Content

Webinar series on the History of Airplane Design- by University of Kansas

https://mediahub.ku.edu/media/History+of+Airplane+DesignA+The+Italian+Airplane+Manufacturers/1_w5yw93
ft?submissionGuid=4a64a6c8-9bed-4812-88d1-710e497bae09
Outcome: Understand the history of Airplane design and Acquire knowledge on the basic concepts
involved in the study of various components of Aircraft and Aircraft Design. This content includes
the design and manufacture of Italian made Aircrafts

Webinar series on the History of Airplane Design- by University of Kansas

https://mediahub.ku.edu/media/History+of+Airplane+DesignA+The+German+Airplane+Manufacturers/1_oz203
elm?submissionGuid=aced06d1-3596-4c3c-8660-05754af0f1f3
Outcome: Understand the history of Airplane design and Acquire knowledge on the basic concepts involved in
the study of various components of Aircraft and Aircraft Design. This content includes the design and
manufacture of German made Aircrafts

109
 University Question paper by Raising The RBT Level
Model Question paper

1. Develop a model of a turbo Jet Engine and explain its working (L2 to L3)
2. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of Turbo fan, Turbo Jet and Turbo prop engine (L1to L2)
3. Explain the performance characteristics of Turbo fan, Turbo Jet and Turbo prop engine (L1 to L2)
4. Explain the various methods of Thrust Augmentation with neat diagrams (L1 to L2)
5. Summarize the classification of Power Plants (L1 to L2)

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Text Books:

1. John D. Anderson, “Introduction to Flight”, McGraw-Hill Education, 2011, ISBN

9780071086059.
2. Lalit Gupta and O P Sharma, “Fundamentals of Flight Vol-I to Vol-IV”, Himalayan Books,
2006.

Reference Books:

1. A.C. Kermode, “Flight without formulae”, Pearson Education India, 1989. ISBN: 9788131713891.
2. Nelson R.C., “Flight stability and automatic control”, McGraw-Hill International Editions, 1998. ISBN
9780071158381.
3. Ian Moir, Allan Seabridge, “Aircraft Systems: Mechanical, Electrical and Avionics Subsystems Integration”, John
Wiley & Sons, 2011, ISBN: 978111965006.
4. Sutton G.P., “Rocket Propulsion Elements”, John Wiley, New York, 8th Ed., 2011; ISBN: 1118174208,
9781118174203.

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