Basic Radiation Safety

Awareness Training
ICES
 What is Radiation?
Radiation: energy in motion
Radioactivity: spontaneous emission of radiation from the
nucleus of an unstable atom
Isotope: atoms with the same number of protons, but different
number of neutrons
Radioisotope: unstable isotope of an element that decays or
disintegrates spontaneously, emitting radiation. Approximately
5,000 natural and artificial radioisotopes have been identified
Types of Radiation
Non-Ionizing Radiation: Radiation that does not have sufficient
energy to dislodge orbital electrons.
Examples of non-ionizing radiation: microwaves, ultraviolet
light, lasers, radio waves, infrared light, and radar.
Ionizing Radiation: Radiation that has sufficient energy to
dislodge orbital electrons.
Examples of ionizing radiation: alpha particles, beta particles,
neutrons, gamma rays, and x-rays.
 Radiation Sources
Two of the most commonly used sources of
radiation in industrial radiography are x-ray
generators and gamma ray sources. Industrial
radiography is often subdivided into “X-ray
Radiography” or “Gamma Radiography”, depending
on the source of radiation used.
 Gamma Radiography
• Gamma rays are produced
by a radioisotope.
• A radioisotope has an
unstable nuclei that does
not have enough binding
energy to hold the
nucleus together.
• The spontaneous
breakdown of an atomic
nucleus resulting in the
release of energy and
matter is known as
radioactive decay.
 Gamma Radiography (cont.)
• Most of the radioactive
material used in industrial
radiography is artificially
produced.
• This is done by subjecting
stable material to a source of
neutrons in a special nuclear
reactor.
• This process is called
activation.
 Gamma Radiography (cont.)
Unlike X-rays, which are
produced by a machine, gamma
rays cannot be turned off.
Radioisotopes used for gamma
radiography are encapsulated to
prevent leakage of the material.

The radioactive “capsule” is attached to

a cable to form what is often called a
“pigtail.”
The pigtail has a special connector at
the other end that attaches to a drive
cable.
 Gamma Radiography (cont.)
A device called a “camera” is used to store, transport
and expose the pigtail containing the radioactive
material. The camera contains shielding material
which reduces the radiographer’s exposure to
radiation during use.
 Gamma Radiography (cont.)
A hose-like device
called a guide tube is
connected to a
threaded hole called an
“exit port” in the
camera.

The radioactive
material will leave and
return to the camera
through this opening
when performing an
exposure!
 Gamma Radiography (cont.)
A “drive cable” is connected to
the other end of the camera.
This cable, controlled by the
radiographer, is used to force
the radioactive material out
into the guide tube where the
gamma rays will pass through
the specimen and expose the
recording device.
COLLIMATOR
‘Collimator’ means a radiation shield that is placed on
the end of the guide tube or directly onto a
radiographic exposure device to restrict the size of the
radiation beam when the sealed source is
cranked into position to make a radiographic
exposure.
 X-ray Radiography
Unlike gamma rays, x-rays are produced by an X-ray
generator system. These systems typically include an
X-ray tube head, a high voltage generator, and a
control console.
 X-ray Radiography (cont.)
• X-rays are produced by establishing a very high voltage
between two electrodes, called the anode and cathode.
• To prevent arcing, the anode and cathode are located inside
a vacuum tube, which is protected by a metal housing.
 X-ray Radiography (cont.)
• The cathode contains a small High Electrical Potential
filament much the same as in a
light bulb. Electrons
• Current is passed through the + -
filament which heats it. The heat
causes electrons to be stripped X-ray Generator
off. or Radioactive
• The high voltage causes these Source Creates
Radiation
“free” electrons to be pulled
toward a target material (usually
made of tungsten) located in the
anode. Radiation
• The electrons impact against the Penetrate
the Sample
target. This impact causes an
energy exchange which causes x-
rays to be created. Exposure Recording Device
Radiation Protection
Radiation Protection
Gamma/X-ray Interactions
Gamma and x-rays - photons
Photon energy converted to excitation or ionization
of electrons
Photoelectric Effect - electron
Compton Scatter - electron and gamma
Pair Production - two gamma result
Probability of interaction based on electron density
and energy of photon
Units
Roentgen
Rad
Rem
Roentgen (R)
Measure of exposure
Charge produced in a specific
volume by gamma or x-rays
1 R = 2.58 x 10-4 C/kg
SI unit is C/kg
Meters (Ion Chambers and GM detectors) often
read out in mR/hr
RAD
Radiation Absorbed Dose
Energy deposited per unit mass
1 rad = 100 erg/gm
Does not account for different radiation
damages
SI unit is the gray (Gy)
100 rad = 1 Gy
REM
Measure of Biological Damage
Effective Dose Equivalent
Dose Effective
TEDE and CEDE
rad x QF = rem
SI unit is sievert (Sv)
100 rem = 1 Sv
For protection
x-ray, beta and gamma radiation

1 R  1 rad  1 rem

For alpha and neutron, have to take into account

the quality factor
rad x QF = rem
QF for alpha is 20, neutron 2-20, gamma/beta is 1
Measures of Radioactivity
The quantity of radioactive material present at a given time:

Curie (Ci) : 3.7x1010 disintegration per second (dps)

or

Becquerel (Bq): 1 dps

Radiological Controls
Radiological Controls
ALARA
As Low As Reasonably Achievable

REASONABLE is a key word here

Minimizing the External and Internal radiation

exposure

Can you reduce your dose to Zero?????

ALARA
Philosophy of keeping doses low as Reasonable
Used to reduce the risks
No dose without benefit
Additional controls
Administrative – procedures, regulations
Engineered - design
Still comes down to
Time, Distance and Shielding
External Methods
Time, Distance and Shielding
Reduce time exposed
Increase distance from source
Use shielding between you and the source
Reduce your waste storage
Properly store material
Set up lab for work stations away from sources
Time
Reduce your time in radiation fields
Preplan
Prep
Practice

Know your area, work in low radiation fields as

much as possible
Distance
Inverse square law for radiation
Gamma and x-ray Point source calculation
Dr1(R1)2=Dr2(R2)2
i.e., Double the distance, dose rate goes down by
factor of 22 or 4
Example
Distance The “four times” rule
1 meter 1 meter

Source Dose rate is ¼

when distance
is doubled

100 mrem/hr 25 mrem/hr

Shielding
Shielding - use of material to reduce transmitted
radiation
A wall or partition may not be a safe shield for
persons on the other side.
More dense, the better shield
Shielding

- Regulation
The maximum exposure rate limits for storage
containers and source changers with the sealed
source in the shielded position are:
(a) 2 millisieverts (200 millirem) per hour at any
exterior surface; and
(b) 0.1 millisieverts (10 millirem) per hour at one
meter from any exterior surface.
Shielding
How to Work Safely With
Gamma Radiography

Working with gamma radiation requires strict adherence to all safety protocols
Radiation Safety
Employees should be very familiar with gamma
radiation regulations and procedures.
Review, understand and practice all safety protocols
and standards regarding the use of gamma radiation in
your workplace. Your employer will or should have
protocols and standards available outlining all safety
measures regarding work with gamma radiation.
Radiation Safety
Always wear radiation monitoring equipment when
working near gamma rays.
Wear the monitoring equipment -- pocket dosimeters,
film badges and similar equipment -- required by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, or
OSHA, that employers provide to check for excessive
radiation exposure. All employees working in areas
where radiation exposure is possible should wear a
monitoring device at all times.
Radiation Safety
Radiation caution signs should be posted wherever
there is a potential hazard.
Post warning signs to caution all employees of
radiation areas. OSHA requires signs bearing the
radiation caution symbol and specific words warning
of radiation. The signage should be clearly posted and
strictly obeyed by all employees.
Radiation Safety
Employers should routinely have evacuation practices for
their personnel, so they know what to do in case of an
emergency.
Make certain that all employees are aware of the evacuation
signal. OSHA requires it to be a singularly identifiable
sound of 75 decibels that rings throughout a building or
plant, alerting all employees of a radiation leak or
emergency and prompting them to evacuate the building
immediately. Every area of the building should be in
hearing distance of the signal. OSHA requires periodic
checks and tests of the signal apparatus to make certain it is
fully operational.
Radiation Safety
Radiation safety protocols should be reviewed
periodically to make sure they are up to date.
Make sure you are aware of your exposure record.
While your employers must maintain past and current
records of radiation exposure, you should be aware of
the level of exposure you receive in any three-month
period. OSHA considers a whole body radiation dose
to include the entire body, head, trunk, blood-forming
organs, gonads and eyes.
Radiation Safety
Accidents can be avoided by being attentive while
working with gamma radiation.
Be alert while operating all equipment generating
gamma radiation. Follow each and every protocol and
procedure exactly as instructed and avoid allowing any
distractions or diversions to compete for your
attention. Working with gamma radiation is an
exacting science and requires care, conscientiousness
and, above all else, respect for the potential dangers
posed by radiation exposure.
 Radiation Safety
X-rays and gamma rays are forms of ionizing radiation, which
means that they have the ability to form ions in the material that is
penetrated. All living organisms are sensitive to the effects of
ionizing radiation (radiation burns, x-ray food pasteurization, etc.)

X-rays and
gamma rays have
enough energy to
liberate electrons
from atoms and
damage the
molecular
structure of cells.
This can cause
radiation burns or
cancer.
 Radiation Safety
Technicians who work with radiation must wear monitoring devices
that keep track of their total absorption, and alert them when they
are in a high radiation area.

Survey Meter Pocket Dosimeter Radiation Alarm Radiation Badge

 Radiation Safety
There are three means of protection to help
reduce exposure to radiation:
Signs of Radiography
Occupational Dose Limits
Persons Exposed Occupationally - Category A
Persons who are exposed to an annual dose exceeding 1.5 rem
must be classified in category A.
The maximum permissible radiation dose for these persons is
5 rem (50 mSv) per annum. 2rem (20 mSv) for average dose
for radiation workers, averaged over five years. The
personal doses must be monitored by means of officially
approved dosimeters. A medical
examination once a year is mandatory. In this case, too, the
body dose per quarter must not
exceed fifty percent of the annual dose.
Public Dose Limits
Non-radiation Workers and the Public
The dose limit to non-radiation workers and members
of the public are two percent of the annual
occupational dose limit. Therefore, a non-radiation
worker can receive a whole body dose of no more that
0.1 rem(1mSv)/year from industrial ionizing radiation.
This exposure would be in addition to the 0.3 rem/year
from natural background radiation and the 0.05
rem/year from man-made sources such as medical x-
rays.
Radiation Area
Dose rates where a person can receive a whole body
dose of

5 to 100 mrem in one hour

30 centimeters from the source

Do not loiter
High Radiation Area
Dose rates where a person can receive a whole body
dose of

 100 mrem in one hour

Requires extra precautions

Caution or Danger
Very High Radiation Area
Dose rates where a person can receive a whole body
dose of

 500 rads in one hour

 Grave Danger
Biological Effects
Many groups exposed to ionizing radiation at high
levels resulted in adverse effects.
Somatic effects
Prompt - skin burns and cataracts
Delayed - cancer
Genetic effects
Teratogenetic effects
 500+ rad
X-Ray Burns

5,000+ rad

P-32 - 6.5 rad/hr/uCi

S-35 - 2.5 rad/hr/uCi

Cancer
Radiation can damage cells through two methods;
Production of free radicals and
Direct damage to the DNA.
Risk factor for radiation dose:
4% increase in risk of dying of cancer for every 100
rem of dose.
Normal cancer risk is 20%.
Surveys are Required …
of the radiographic exposure device and the guide
tube after each exposure when approaching the
device or the guide tube. The survey shall
determine that the sealed source has returned to its
shielded position before exchanging films,
repositioning the exposure head, or dismantling
equipment.
any time the source is exchanged and whenever a
radiographic exposure device is placed in a storage
area to ensure that the sealed source is in its
shielded position.
the boundary of the restricted area during
radiographic operations not employing shielded
Transportation

The radiographic exposure device shall be transported

to the work site with the safety locks in position. It
shall not be transported in the cab of the vehicle
but in a storage box affixed to the vehicle. The box
shall have warning in English & Arabic. The vehicle
shall be driven by classified persons with calibrated
survey meter. The maximum reading shall 2 mR/hr at
surface of storage box. The radiation warnings signs
shall be on the box and vehicle.
 EMERGENCY PROCEDURE

GAMMA
MONITOR THE AREA TO ENSURE SAFE DISTENCE
ASK ANYONE WHO MAY HAVE BEEN INVOLVED TO STAY
OR OBTAIN NAMES AND PLACES WHERE THEY CAN BE
CONTACTED.
TELL WORKS MANAGER OR SITE MANAGER AS
APPROPRIATE AND ALWAYS INFORM RPO.
PLAN A COURSE OF ACTION
REPLACE, IF POSSIBLE, IF NOT THEN
ATTENUATE THE RADIATION BY BAGS OF LED SHOTS OR
PLACING ISOTOPES IN TEMPORARY CONTAINER.
CALL FOR HELP, IF NECESSARY, FROM APPROPRIATE
AUTHORITIES.
KEEP ALL BARRIERS IN POSITION UNTIL THE
EMERGANCY HAS BEEN DEALT WITH,
Summary
Radiation is energy
Gamma and Photons cause ionizations
Dose is reduced with time, distance and shielding
Wear your dosimeters
Instruments will keep you out of trouble