Chapter 12:

Reproduction produces offspring

12.1 Fertilisation

Sexual intercourse
For fertilisation to occur, male sperm need to be brought into contact with an
ovum produced by the female. The usual method is sexual intercourse. For
sexual intercourse to take place, and for sperm to be deposited in the
vagina, the penis must become become erect. An erection results from
blood rushing into the spaces of the erectile tissue of the penis.
Rhythmic contractions of the epididymis, vasa deferentia, seminal vesicles
and prostate gland propel the contents of the ducts and glands into the
urethra and then out of the body. This process is called ejaculation. The
ejaculated material consists of semen, which contains sperm.
Semen also contains the secretions of the seminal vesicles, bulbo-urethral
glands and prostate gland. The greatest contribution comes from the
seminal vesicles, which produce a thick fluid containing nourishment for the
sperm. Besides nourishment, semen provides the sperm with a fluid in which
to swim, and neutralises the acid nature of the male urethra and female
vagina. In addition, it contains enzymes that activate the sperm once
ejaculation has taken place.
12.1 Fertilisation

The pathway taken by sperm during sexual

intercourse
12.1 Fertilisation

Fertilisation
The sperm are released in the vagina at the entrance to the uterus; a
process called insemination. Once within the vagina, the sperm travel
through the cervix and the body of the uterus into the uterine tubes.
Of the hundreds of millions of sperm deposited into the vagina during sexual
intercourse, only a few thousand reach the uterine tubes. Fertilisation
normally occurs in the uterine tubes when the ovum is about one-third of the
way down the tube.
The secondary oocyte that is released at ovulation is at metaphase II.
It is surrounded by two layers.
•The outer corona radiata consists of follicle cells
held together by cementing materials that contain
acid.
•The inner zona pellucida is a glycoprotein matrix
surrounding the plasma membrane of the oocyte.
12.1 Fertilisation

Process of fertilisation
12.1 Fertilisation

Once the sperm has entered the oocyte the tail is absorbed, and the head
begins to move through the cytoplasm in the form of a male pronucleus –
the haploid nucleus of the sperm. The entrance of the sperm stimulates the
secondary oocyte to complete the second meiotic division. The nucleus of
the oocyte develops into a female pronucleus (a haploid nucleus of the
oocyte), which fuses with the male pronucleus to form a single nucleus that
now has the diploid number of chromosomes.
Fertilisation is complete, and the fertilised oocyte is called a zygote.
12.2 Early embryonic development and implantation

Blastocyst formation
After fertilisation, the zygote travels down the uterine (or Fallopian) tube and
begins to divide by mitosis. The process of mitosis results in the formation of
two cells exactly the same as the original parent cell. These two cells divide
again by mitosis into four, then eight, then 16, and so on. By about six days
after fertilisation, the original zygote has reached the uterus and has
developed into a blastocyst. The blastocyst is a hollow ball of cells that
surround a cavity filled with fluid. At one side of the cavity is a group of about
30 cells called the inner cell mass. The inner cell mass is composed of stem
cells that will differentiate into the different body cells to form the embryo.
12.2 Early embryonic development and implantation

Implantation
The blastocyst remains free within the cavity of the uterus for 2–3 days, and
then sinks into the soft endometrium to become firmly attached to the wall of
the uterus. This process is called implantation, and enables the blastocyst to
gain nourishment for growth and development by absorbing nutrients from
the glands and blood vessels of the uterine lining.

Implantation of a blastocyst
12.2 Early embryonic development and implantation

Hormone production
The continued development of the blastocyst depends on the endometrium
being maintained. High levels of oestrogen and progesterone in the blood
stop the endometrium breaking down, and so the menstrual cycle ceases.
During the early stages of pregnancy, it is the corpus luteum that produces
these hormones until the developing placenta can take over the role after
approximately 8–12 weeks.
The first two months of pregnancy are referred to as the embryonic period;
after the second month, the developing individual is called a foetus.
12.2 Early embryonic development and implantation

Cell differentiation
The cells that make up the inner cell mass of the blastocyst are stem cells.
After a sperm fertilises an oocyte, a zygote is formed. A zygote develops
from an unspecialised totipotent cell to a blastocyst, and then to an embryo
and its membranes.

Process of cell differentiation

12.2 Early embryonic development and implantation

Primary germ layers

While the blastocyst is implanting in the lining of the uterus, during the third
week of development, the inner cell mass undergoes changes as the cells
change to multipotent. This process results in the formation of three layers of
cells, the primary germ layers. These layers, called the ectoderm, mesoderm
and endoderm, are the embryonic tissues that will differentiate into all the
tissues and organs of the body.
12.2 Early embryonic development and implantation

Ectoderm
The outermost germ layer. This will form the outer
layers of the body, such as the skin, hair and
mammary glands, as well as the nervous system.
Mesoderm
The middle germ layer. The skeleton, muscles,
connective tissue, heart, blood and urogenital
tract form from the mesoderm. The mesoderm
also allows the formation of the stomach and
intestines.
Endoderm
The innermost germ layer. It forms the lining of
the digestive system as well as the lungs and
thyroid.
12.2 Early embryonic development and implantation

Structures formed by the three primary germ

layers
12.2 Early embryonic development and implantation

Embryonic membranes
Early in the embryonic period, four embryonic membranes form. These lie
outside the embryo and serve to protect and nourish it as it develops.
•Amnion: first membrane to develop. By the eighth day after fertilisation, it
surrounds the embryo, enclosing a cavity into which it secretes amniotic
fluid. This fluid serves to protect the embryo against physical injury by acting
as a shock absorber, helps to maintain a constant temperature and allows
the developing embryo, and later the foetus, to move freely.
•Chorion: formed from the outer cells of the blastocyst together with a layer
of mesodermal cells, it surrounds the embryo and the other three embryonic
membranes. As the amnion enlarges, it fuses with the inner layer of the
chorion. Eventually, the chorion becomes the main part of the foetal portion
of the placenta.
•Yolk sac and allantois: form the outer structure of the umbilical cord.
12.2 Early embryonic development and implantation
12.2 Early embryonic development and implantation

Development of the placenta

The placenta connects the embryo, or foetus, and the mother, allowing the
mother to meet the needs of the baby.

Functions of the placenta

12.2 Early embryonic development and implantation

The placenta is attached to

the foetus by the umbilical
cord. Inside the umbilical
cord are two umbilical
arteries that carry blood to
the capillaries of the
chorionic villi. A single
umbilical vein carries blood
from the placenta, through
the umbilical cord, back to
the foetus.
Functions of the placenta
On the maternal side, blood
from the mother enters the
placenta through the uterine
arteries, flows through the
blood spaces where the
exchange of substances
occurs, and leaves again
through the uterine veins.
12.3 Pregnancy

From embryo to foetus

The period of pregnancy is called gestation. The developing child grows to a
length of about 50 cm and to an average weight of 3400 g. This growth and
development takes about 280 days.
The embryonic period forms the first 8 weeks.

Embryo during the fourth and fifth weeks

By the end of this period, the general body form of the infant has developed,
and the basic plan of the organ systems is in place. The developing baby is
now known as a foetus.
12.3 Pregnancy

Stages of foetal development

12.4 Changes during birth

The birth process

Prior to birth
In preparation for labour, several hormonal changes occur. These changes
cause the ligaments of the pelvis to soften, making them more pliable for
childbirth. The hormonal changes also increase the response of the uterus
to stimuli and strengthen contraction of its muscles.
The foetus usually settles with its head in the mother’s pelvis.

The foetus just before birth

12.4 Changes during birth

First stage of labour

Strong contractions of the uterus every ~30 minutes begin the birth process.
The first stage of labour, the dilation of the cervix, is the time from the onset
of labour to the complete dilation (or opening) of the cervix.
As the contractions become more frequent and stronger, the head of the
foetus is pushed more forcefully against the slowly dilating cervix. Eventually
the cervix is completely dilated (usually to about 10 cm), and the uterus,
cervix and vagina form the birth canal.
12.4 Changes during birth

Second stage of labour

The second stage of labour involves the delivery of the foetus. It frequently
begins with the bursting of the membrane surrounding the foetus and a gush
of fluid from the vagina.
As the foetus moves through the fully dilated cervix, its head stretches the
vagina. This distension of the vagina stimulates the woman to contract her
abdominal muscles. These contractions, together with the contractions of
the uterus, push the foetus through the vagina.
Once the head has emerged, it turns sideways again to face the mother’s
hips. This rotation allows the shoulders and the rest of the body to move
more easily through the birth canal.
12.4 Changes during birth

a Early in the second stage of labour: the baby’s head is starting to turn so that it faces towards its mother’s
back and the amnion has ruptured; b Late in the second stage: the baby’s head appears at the entrance to
the vagina and its shoulders are turning to fit into the bones of the pelvis; at this stage, the face is turned
completely towards the mother’s back; c The baby’s head emerges from the vagina
12.4 Changes during birth

Third stage of labour

Once born, the baby begins to breathe with its own lungs, even though it is
still connected to the placenta by the umbilical cord. The amnion, chorion
and placenta are still inside the uterus at this stage. The umbilical cord is
removed.
The uterus continues to contract, and about five minutes after delivery the
placenta, other membranes and the remains of the umbilical cord are
expelled. Together these are called the afterbirth.
12.4 Changes during birth

Changes in the baby at birth

At birth, the newborn can no longer depend on the placenta for food and
oxygen. The lungs and liver must now become fully functional, and for this to
occur blood must flow through them. Therefore, it is important that the
ductus venosus, ductus arteriosus and foramen ovale close.
As the lungs expand after birth, they no longer offer the same resistance to
blood flow, so blood flow through the ductus arteriosus begins to decrease.
A few weeks after the birth, all that is left of the ductus arteriosus is some
fibrous tissue.
12.4 Changes during birth

As larger amounts of blood return to the heart from the lungs, the pressure
in the left atrium increases. This increased pressure forces the flap of the
foramen ovale against the wall of the atrium, closing off the opening.
Eventually, the foramen ovale becomes permanently closed.
With the cutting of the umbilical cord, blood no longer flows through the
umbilical vessels or the ductus venosus. As no blood is being carried
through it, the ductus venosus gradually constricts until it is permanently
closed off. The bypass around the liver is then lost and all blood in the blood
vessel to the liver must pass through the liver.