Project Management

Methodologies

By : Abhist Kumar
Assistant Professor
CSE Dept.
 A methodology is a model, which project managers
employ for the design, planning, implementation and
achievement of their project objectives. There are
different project management methodologies to benefit
different projects.

 For example, there is a specific methodology, which

NASA uses to build a space station while the Navy
employs a different methodology to build submarines.
Hence, there are different project management
methodologies that cater to the needs of different
projects spanned across different business domains.
1 - Adaptive Project Framework
 In this methodology, the project scope is a variable. Additionally, the time and the cost are
constants for the project. Therefore, during the project execution, the project scope is
adjusted in order to get the maximum business value from the project.

2 - Agile Software Development

 Agile software development methodology is for a project that needs extreme agility in
requirements. The key features of agile are its short-termed delivery cycles (sprints), agile
requirements, dynamic team culture, less restrictive project control and emphasis on real-
time communication.

3 - Crystal Methods
 In crystal method, the project processes are given a low priority. Instead of the processes,
this method focuses more on team communication, team member skills, people and
interaction. Crystal methods come under agile category.

4 - Dynamic Systems Development Model (DSDM)

 This is the successor of Rapid Application Development (RAD) methodology. This is also a
subset of agile software development methodology and boasts about the training and
documents support this methodology has. This method emphasizes more on the active user
involvement during the project life cycle.
5 - Extreme Programming (XP)
 Lowering the cost of requirement changes is the main objective of extreme
programming. XP emphasizes on fine scale feedback, continuous process,
shared understanding and programmer welfare. In XP, there is no detailed
requirements specification or software architecture built.

6 - Feature Driven Development (FDD)

 This methodology is more focused on simple and well-defined processes, short
iterative and feature driven delivery cycles. All the planning and execution in
this project type take place based on the features.

7 - Information Technology Infrastructure Library (ITIL)

 This methodology is a collection of best practices in project management. ITIL
covers a broad aspect of project management which starts from the
organizational management level.

8 - Joint Application Development (JAD)

 Involving the client from the early stages with the project tasks is emphasized
by this methodology. The project team and the client hold JAD sessions
collaboratively in order to get the contribution from the client. These JAD
sessions take place during the entire project life cycle.
9 - Lean Development (LD)
 Lean development focuses on developing change-tolerance software. In this method,
satisfying the customer comes as the highest priority. The team is motivated to provide the
highest value for the money paid by the customer.

10 - PRINCE2
 PRINCE2 takes a process-based approach to project management. This methodology is
based on eight high-level processes.

11 - Rapid Application Development (RAD)

 This methodology focuses on developing products faster with higher quality. When it
comes to gathering requirements, it uses the workshop method. Prototyping is used for
getting clear requirements and re-use the software components to accelerate the
development timelines.
 In this method, all types of internal communications are considered informal.

12 - Rational Unified Process (RUP)

 RUP tries to capture all the positive aspects of modern software development
methodologies and offer them in one package. This is one of the first project management
methodologies that suggested an iterative approach to software development.
13 - Scrum
 This is an agile methodology. The main goal of this methodology is to improve team
productivity dramatically by removing every possible burden. Scrum projects are
managed by a Scrum master.

14 - Spiral
 Spiral methodology is the extended waterfall model with prototyping. This method is
used instead of using the waterfall model for large projects.

15 - Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

 This is a conceptual model used in software development projects. In this method,
there is a possibility of combining two or more project management methodologies
for the best outcome. SDLC also heavily emphasizes on the use of documentation and
has strict guidelines on it.

16 - Waterfall (Traditional)
 This is the legacy model for software development projects. This methodology has
been in practice for decades before the new methodologies were introduced. In this
model, development lifecycle has fixed phases and linear timelines. This model is not
capable of addressing the challenges in the modern software development domain.
 Software Management Activities
 Software project management comprises of a number of
activities, which contains planning of project, deciding scope of
software product, estimation of cost in various terms,
scheduling of tasks and events, and resource management.
Project management activities may include:

 Project Planning
 Scope Management

 Project Estimation
 Project Planning
Software project planning is task, which is performed before the production of
software actually starts. It is there for the software production but involves no
concrete activity that has any direction connection with software production;
rather it is a set of multiple processes, which facilitates software production.
Project planning may include the following:

 Scope Management
It defines the scope of project; this includes all the activities, process need to be
done in order to make a deliverable software product. Scope management is
essential because it creates boundaries of the project by clearly defining what
would be done in the project and what would not be done. This makes project
to contain limited and quantifiable tasks, which can easily be documented and
in turn avoids cost and time overrun.
During Project Scope management, it is necessary to -
 Define the scope

 Decide its verification and control

 Divide the project into various smaller parts for ease of management.

 Verify the scope

 Control the scope by incorporating changes to the scope

 Project Estimation
For an effective management accurate estimation of various measures is a must.
With correct estimation managers can manage and control the project more
efficiently and effectively.Project estimation may involve the following:

 Software size estimation : Software size may be estimated either in terms of

KLOC (Kilo Line of Code) or by calculating number of function points in the
software. Lines of code depend upon coding practices and Function points vary
according to the user or software requirement.

 Effort estimation : The managers estimate efforts in terms of personnel

requirement and man-hour required to produce the software. For effort
estimation software size should be known. This can either be derived by
managers’ experience, organization’s historical data or software size can be
converted into efforts by using some standard formulae.

 Time estimation : Once size and efforts are estimated, the time required to
produce the software can be estimated. Efforts required is segregated into sub
categories as per the requirement specifications and interdependency of various
components of software. Software tasks are divided into smaller tasks,
activities or events by Work Breakthrough Structure (WBS). The tasks are
scheduled on day-to-day basis or in calendar months.
 Cost estimation This might be considered as the most
difficult of all because it depends on more elements than
any of the previous ones. For estimating project cost, it is
required to consider

 Size of software
 Software quality
 Hardware
 Additional software or tools, licenses etc.
 Skilled personnel with task-specific skills
 Travel involved
 Communication
 Training and support
 Project Estimation Techniques
We discussed various parameters involving project estimation such as size, effort,
time and cost.Project manager can estimate the listed factors using two broadly
recognized techniques –
 Decomposition Technique : This technique assumes the software as a product
of various compositions.There are two main models –

 Line of Code Estimation is done on behalf of number of line of codes in the

software product.
 Function Points Estimation is done on behalf of number of function points in
the software product.

 Empirical Estimation Technique: This technique uses empirically derived

formulae to make estimation.These formulae are based on LOC or FPs.

 Putnam ModelThis model is made by Lawrence H. Putnam, which is based on

Norden’s frequency distribution (Rayleigh curve). Putnam model maps time
and efforts required with software size.
 COCOMOCOCOMO stands for COnstructive COst MOdel, developed by
Barry W. Boehm. It divides the software product into three categories of
software: organic, semi-detached and embedded.
 Project Scheduling
 Project Scheduling in a project refers to roadmap of all activities to be
done with specified order and within time slot allotted to each activity.
Project managers tend to define various tasks, and project milestones and
arrange them keeping various factors in mind. They look for tasks lie in
critical path in the schedule, which are necessary to complete in specific
manner (because of task interdependency) and strictly within the time
allocated. Arrangement of tasks which lies out of critical path are less
likely to impact over all schedule of the project.

 For scheduling a project, it is necessary to -

 Break down the project tasks into smaller, manageable form
 Find out various tasks and correlate them
 Estimate time frame required for each task
 Divide time into work-units
 Assign adequate number of work-units for each task
 Calculate total time required for the project from start to finish
 Types of Software Projects
1 - Desktop
 There are two types of project management software available for project
managers. The first category of such software is the desktop software. Microsoft
Project is a good example for this type. You can manage your entire project using
MS Project, but you need to share the electronic documents with others, when
collaboration is required.
 All the updates should be done to the same document by relevant parties time to
time. Therefore, such desktop project management software has limitations when
it should be updated and maintained by more than one person.

2 - Web Based
 As a solution for the above issue, the web-based project management software
was introduced. With this type, the users can access the web application and read,
write or change the project management-related activities.
 This was a good solution for distributed projects across departments and
geographies. This way, all the stakeholders of the project have access to project
details at any given time. Specially, this model is the best for virtual teams that
operate on the Internet.
 Setting Objectives
 SMART refers to a specific criteria for setting goals and
project objectives . SMART stands for Specific, Measurable, Attainable,
Relevant, and Time-bound. The idea is that every project goal must
adhere to the SMART criteria to be effective. Therefore, when planning
a project's objectives, each one should be:

 Specific: The goal should target a specific area of improvement or

answer a specific need.
 Measurable: The goal must be quantifiable, or at least allow for
measurable progress
 Attainable: The goal should be realistic, based on available resources
and existing constraints
 Relevant: The goal should align with other business objectives to be
considered worthwhile
 Time-bound: The goal must have a deadline or defined end
 Management Principles:
The principles of project management are the fundamental
rules that should be followed for the successful
management of projects.

 Formal project management structure

 Invested and engaged project sponsor

 Clear and objective goals and outcomes

 Documented roles and responsibilities

 Strong change management

 Risk management

 Mature value delivery capabilities

 Performance management baseline

 Communication plan
Management Control :
 Project Portfolio Management
 Project portfolio management (PPM) is the centralized management
of an organization’s projects. While these projects may or may not be
related to one another, they are managed under one umbrella, called a
portfolio, to oversee and manage any competing resources. Portfolio
management in project management also involves the intake process
of projects. This includes identifying potential projects, authorizing
them, assigning project managers to them, and including them in the
overall portfolio. It also includes high-level controls and monitoring
to ensure ongoing projects are directly related to the business's
overall goals and strategies.
The main benefits of project portfolio management are:

 It provides alignment between company objectives and projects.

 It takes the personal bias out of project planning, so there are no
“pet” projects.
 It makes decision-making easier around project conflicts

 It helps the project management office or portfolio manager turn

down projects that are not aligned with business priorities.
 It emphasizes the importance of focusing on the long-term, big
picture view.
 It builds governance and oversight into the management of
projects.
There are five main steps to portfolio management in project management.

 1. Identify the guiding objectives of the business: If you work for a grocery
store, is their goal to provide the freshest food, the largest selection, or the
lowest prices? If the lowest prices are the priority, then projects to promote cost
savings are much more important than projects to improve the food's quality.
 2. Capture and research requests and ideas : Project ideas could come from
anywhere at any time. It’s important to have a formalized intake process to
capture these ideas so they can be tracked and evaluated. This may be as simple
as a spreadsheet maintained by the portfolio manager, or it could be an online
database where anyone in the company can enter ideas as they think of them.
 3. Select the best projects : Once ideas are captured, portfolio managers must
go through a standard process to evaluate and select the projects that will move
forward. This requires more than just ensuring they are aligned with the
company objectives, such as:
 How much will it cost?
 How long will it take?
 What is the return on this project? (What benefit will it provide?)
 Are the resources available?
 What are the risks associated with this project?
 4. Validate portfolio feasibility and initiate projects : Once a determination
has been made on which projects to move forward, it’s important to validate
the portfolio as a whole. This can include making sure the mix of projects
chosen isn’t too large, too risky, too expensive, or too interdependent. The
portfolio should be properly balanced and aligned with business goals. For
example, if three of your projects all forecast testing in January, and you only
have one test lab, this is an issue. Also, if two projects are interrelated and a
delay in one will push out the other as well, then you may want to reconsider
starting them both at the same time. Once the portfolio is validated, project
managers can be assigned and the projects initiated.

 5. Manage and monitor the portfolio: Projects change and evolve over time,
and new ideas may be added to the list of potential projects. This is why it’s
important to continually manage both the ongoing portfolio execution and the
intake process. Managing and monitoring the portfolio may include the
following:
 Working with project managers to monitor the performance of projects.
 Identifying and resolving conflicts between projects.
 Making changes to the portfolio as needed, including putting projects on hold,
canceling projects, and adding in new projects.
 Ensuring projects are still aligned with the business objectives.
 Cost Benefit Analysis
 Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is a technique used to compare the total costs of a
programme/project with its benefits, using a common metric (most commonly monetary
units). This enables the calculation of the net cost or benefit associated with the programme.
 As a technique, it is used most often at the start of a programme or project when different
options or courses of action are being appraised and compared, as an option for choosing the
best approach. It can also be used, however, to evaluate the overall impact of a programme in
quantifiable and monetised terms.
 CBA adds up the total costs of a programme or activity and compares it against its total
benefits. The technique assumes that a monetary value can be placed on all the costs and
benefits of a programme, including tangible and intangible returns to other people and
organisations in addition to those immediately impacted. As such, a major advantage of cost-
benefit analysis lies in forcing people to explicitly and systematically consider the various
factors which should influence strategic choice.
 Decisions are made through CBA by comparing the net present value (NPV) of the
programme or project’s costs with the net present value of its benefits. Decisions are based
on whether there is a net benefit or cost to the approach, i.e. total benefits less total costs.
Costs and benefits that occur in the future have less weight attached to them in a cost-benefit
analysis. To account for this, it is necessary to ‘discount’ or reduce the value of future costs
or benefits to place them on a par with costs and benefits incurred today. The ‘discount rate’
will vary depending on the sector or industry, but public sector activity generally uses a
discount rate of 5-6%. The sum of the discounted benefits of an option minus the sum of the
discounted costs, all discounted to the same base date, is the ‘net present value’ of the option.