Chapter Two

The Basics of Telecommunications

Networks

1
2.1 Basic Telecommunications Network
2.2 Operation of a Conventional Telephone
2.3 Switching Systems
2.4 Signaling
2.5 Local-Access network,
Trunk Network,
International Network, and
Telecommunications Network.
2.6 Telephone Numbering
2.7 Network Management
2.8 Traffic Engineering
2
 Central Central
Office Exchange Exchange Office

Fiber-optic cable

End instrument End instrument

Telecommunications Network and Services

3
 2.1 Basic Telecommunications Network

 The purpose of telecommunications system is

to provide the means to pass information from
one terminal (subscriber) to other terminal.

 It is divided into four possible elements – end

systems or elements, transmission systems,
switching systems and signalling.

4
Subscribers

Subscribers

Subscribers

A Basic Telecommunications Network

5
 End instruments
 To transmit and receive sound, data, pictures, and other information –
telephone, fax, telex, computer, …
 Transmission systems
 To provide circuits having the capability of accepting electrical signals at
one point and delivering at destination point with good quality.
 Switching
 In principle, all telephones could still be connected to each other by cables
as they were in the very beginning of the history of telephony. However, as
the number of telephones grew, operators soon noticed that is was
necessary to switch signals from one wire to another.
 Then only a few cable connections were needed between exchanges
because the number of simultaneously ongoing calls is much smaller than
the number of telephones.
 Signalling
 It is the mechanism that allows network entities to establish, maintain, and
terminate sessions in a network.
 It is carried out with the help of specific signals or messages that indicate
to the other end what is requested of it by this connection.
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 2.2 Operation of a Conventional Telephone

 The telephone is a familiar end instrument in

telecommunication system.
 The telephone is basically a transducer.
 The transmitter telephone converts sound
energy into electrical energy.
 The receiver telephone converts electrical
energy into sound waves.

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 The Telephone

 Handset – Transmitter, Receiver and Hybrid

 Dialling/ Keypad
 Switch Hook
 Line
 Switching Centre
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 Handset
 Transmitter/ Microphone
 It consists of a box containing a powder of small
carbon granules.
 One side of the enclosure is flexible and is mechanically
attached to a diaphragm on which sound wave
impinges.

 The diaphragm causes the carbon granules to compress

or allow them to expand.
 Consequently, the resistance of the carbon granules
decreases or increases in the box.

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 The carbon granules conduct electricity and the resistance
offered by them is dependent upon the density with which
they are packed.
 If a voltage is applied to microphone, the current in the
circuit varies according to the vibrations of the diaphragm.

 The varying electrical signal is similar to the varying

sound signal.
 Microphone functions like amplitude modulator.

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Why carbon microphone in telephones ?
 Carbon mikes were the first microphones and consisted of
a small button of carbon powder connected to a metal
diaphragm.
 When sound flexed the diaphragm, the carbon grains
changed their electrical resistance.
 When a voltage source is applied between the microphone
wires a variable current is generated.
 This is how the first telephones were constructed, and
many phones to this day still use the idea.
 Carbon microphones have poor frequency response and
bad signal-to-noise ratios and they are only suitable for
telephones and such communication applications.
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 Microphone as amplitude modulator
 When the sound waves impinge on the
diaphragm, the instantaneous resistance is
given by,
ri = rq - rmsin t
where, ri = instantaneous resistance.
rq = quiescent resistance of the microphone when
there is no speech signal.
rm = maximum variation in resistance offered by the
carbon granules, rm< rq .
 = 2f, f = frequency (Hz).
The negative sign indicates the decrease in resistance when the carbon granules are
compressed and vice versa.
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 At ideal condition, the instantaneous current in
the microphone is given by:

Where Iq = quiescent current in the microphone.

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 Approximation

 Using Binomial theorem and ignoring higher

order terms,

 The equation resembles the amplitude

modulation equation.

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 Receiver/ Earphone
 The varying signal from the handset A (calling
subscriber) is coupled by wires to a receiver of the
handset B (called subscriber) .

 The receiver is an electromagnet with an accompanying

magnetic diaphragm.

 The electromagnet usually have two coils of about 100

turns with nominal resistance of 400 ohms.

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 The receiver diaphragm must always be displaced in
one direction from its unstressed position.

 It must be positioned with an air gap between it and the

poles of the electromagnet.

 The diaphragm is made of cobalt iron and it is slightly

conical shaped near the ear for uniform pressure
distribution and hence the sound.

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 Earphone as sound detector
 The variations in current through the coils
wound on the electromagnet results in change
in flux.
 This instantaneous flux linking the poles of the
electromagnet and the diaphragm is given by:
i = q + m sin t

where, i = instantaneous flux.

q = flux due to quiescent current.
m = maximum amplitude of flux variation, m < q .

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 The instantaneous force exerted on the diaphragm is proportional
to the square of the instantaneous flux linking the path.
F = K (q + m sin t)2
where,
K = proportional constant
F = K (q2 + m2 sin2 t+2qmsin t)
F  K (q2 + 2qmsin t)

F = K q2 (1+K1I0 sin t)

where K1 = constant
 I0 sin t = the current through the coil.
 Thus, the force experienced by the diaphragm is in accordance
with signals produced by the microphone. 18
 Hybrids
 Within the telephone network, switching and transmission are almost
always four-wire circuits with the two signals being separated.

 Hybrids perform the necessary conversion.

 In older analog networks, this was required so that repeater amplifiers

could be inserted in long-distance links.

 If any 2-wire full duplex ( communication in both directions) analogue line

requires amplification, this can only be done after separating the send and
transmit pairs.
______________________________________________________________
_
 In telecommunication, a four-wire circuit is a two-way circuit using two
paths so arranged that the respective signals are transmitted in one
direction only by one path and in the other direction by the other path. 19
 In today’s digital systems, each speech direction must be
processed and transported independently.
 Hybrids allow two people to speak and listen
simultaneously over a single pair of wires, with little or no
interaction.
 The two audio directions are combined on a single two-
wire pair.
 The search for better telephone hybrids and echo
cancellers was an important motive for the development
of DSP algorithms and hardware.
 The line cards in a telephone central office switch that are
interfaced to analog lines include hybrids that adapt the
four-wire network to the two-wire circuits that connect
most subscribers. 20
 Dialling
Pulse dialing :
 A rotary dial telephone is used for implementing the
pulse dialling.

Tone dialing/ Keypad :

 Touch-tone dialing
 Dual Tone Multifrequency (DTMF)

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 Pulse Dialing
 When a digit is to be dialed, the dialing plate with
finger holes is rotated clockwise to the end and
released.
 The switch is breaking the line current periodically
and the number of these periods indicates the dialed
digits.
 Direct-current pulse train is produced by
interrupting a steady signal according to a fixed or
formatted code for each digit and at a standard
pulse repetition rate.
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23
 Tone Dialing
 For dialing, each push button generates a tone
with two frequencies.

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 DTMF Generation
 DTMF signal can be generated using different
systems having microcontrollers or DSP.
 Example:

 fa and fb are the higher and lower frequencies.

 Aa and Ab are amplitudes.
 ‘1’ is represented as :
 y=(0.9*sin(2*pi*697*t))+(0.63*sin(2*pi*1209*t))
 ‘4’ is represented as :
 y=(0.9*sin(2*pi*770*t))+(0.63*sin(2*pi*1209*t))
 ‘9’ is represented as :
 y=(0.9*sin(2*pi*852*t))+(0.63*sin(2*pi*1477*t))
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26
 DTMF Detection
 A commercial receiver uses two dedicated switched
capacitor filters for each of the high and low
frequency tones, and then digital counting techniques
to determine the frequency. A special averaging
algorithm allows for tolerance in the nominal
frequency, while increasing the immunity to speech.

 An alternative method of DTMF tone detection is to

use Digital Signal Processing, once the analogue
signal has been converted into digital form.
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Ringer/ Alerter/ Bell
Battery System

Read

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 Switching and Signaling
 To build the requested connection from one
subscriber to another, the network has switching
equipment that selects the required connection.
 These switching systems are called exchanges.
 The subscriber identifies the required connection
with signaling information (dialing) that is
transmitted over the subscriber line.
 In the network, signaling is needed to transmit the
control information of a specific call and circuits
from one exchange to another.
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 2.3 Switching Systems
 The main task of the telephone exchange is to build
up a physical connection between subscriber A, the
one who initiates the call, and subscriber B according
to signaling information dialed by subscriber A.
 The speech channel is connected from the time when
the circuit was established to the time when the call is
cleared.
 In the past, the switching matrix was
electromechanical and controlled directly by pulses
from a telephone.
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 There are three types of switching namely a circuit
switching, message switching and packet switching.
 In telecommunication switching, the circuit switching
and message switchings are used.
 The switching technique used in computer
communication network or data transfer is packet
switching.
 Switching Systems can be classified as:

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 Basics of Switching System
 Functions of Switching System
 Identity:
 The local switching centre must react to a calling signal from calling
subscriber and must be able to receive information to identify the
required destination terminal (seize).
 Addressing:
 The switching system must be able to identify the called subscriber from
the input information (train of pulses or multiple frequency).
 The address may be in same local centre or some other exchange.
 Finding and path setup:
 Once the calling subscriber destination is identified and the called
subscriber is available, an accept signal is passed to the switching system
and calling subscriber.
 Based on the availability, suitable path will be selected.
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 Busy testing:
 If the number dialled by the calling subscriber is wrong or the called subscriber is busy
or the terminal may be free (lifting the phone) but no response (not willing to talk), a
switching system has to pass a corresponding voice message or busy tone after waiting
for some time (status).
 Supervision:
 Once the path is setup between calling and called subscriber, it should be supervised in
order to detect answer and clear down conditions and recording billing information.

 Clear down:
 When the established call is completed, the path setup should be disconnected.
 If the calling subscriber keeps the phone down first, the signal called clear forward is
passed to the switching system.
 If the called subscriber keeps the phone down first, a signal called clear backward
signal is passed to the switching system.
 By clear signal, the switching system must disconnect the path setup between calling
and called subscriber.
 Billing:
 A switching system should have a mechanism to meter to count the number of units
made during the conversation.
 The cumulative number of units made for a particular duration by the calling
subscriber is calculated. This information and if any should be sent to the calling
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subscriber.
 Requirements of Switching System
 High availability

 A – Availability
 Uptime – the total time that the system is operating satisfactorily.
 Downtime – the total time that is not uptime.
 The availability or full accessibility is possible if all of the lines are equally
accessible to all incoming calls.
 High speed
 How quickly the control signals are transmitted.
 Low down time
 The unavailability of switching system may be due to failure of equipments, troubles
in transmission media, human errors in switching, etc.
 Good facilities
 Recording facilities, quick service for the emergency numbers, good accessibility, …
 High security
 Duplicated common control circuits, registers, processors and standby systems are
used provide high security.
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 2.4 Signalling

 The three signalling circuits are the main

telephone, the switch hook, which is operated
when the telephone is first lifted, the keypad
for sending numbers, and the alerter.

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 Local Signalling
 The 3 circuits perform Local Signalling between the
telephone and the local Switching Centre.
 Signalling is a major function of a telephone network.
 It is required for setting up calls between any of the millions
of telephones connected throughout the world.
 Local signalling is the first stage in this complex process.

 Subscriber Loop
 Most telephones are connected to the Switching Centre by a
single pair of wires, known as the subscriber loop.
 These are usually in multi-pair cables, each providing from
6 to 2700 wire pairs.
 For this reason it is necessary to provide for transmission of
speech and signalling in both directions along one pair. 36
 Set up and Release of a Call
 Each telephone has a switch that indicates an on- or off-hook
condition.
 When the hook is raised, the switch is closed and an approximately
50 mA of current starts flowing.
 This is detected by a relay giving information to the control unit in
the exchange.
 It activates signaling circuits, which then receive dialed digits from
subscriber A (who initiates a call).
 The control unit in the telephone exchange controls the switching
matrix that connects the speech circuit through to the called
subscriber B.
 Connection is made according to the numbers dialed by subscriber
A.
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 When the call is being routed to subscriber B, the
telephone exchange supplies to the subscriber loop
a ringing voltage and the bell of subscriber B’s
telephone starts ringing.
 The ringing voltage is often about 70V ac 25-Hz
frequency, which is high enough to activate the bell
on any telephone.
 The ringing voltage is switched off immediately
when an off-hook condition is detected on the loop
of subscriber B, and then an end-to-end speech
circuit is connected and the conversation may start.

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39
 2.5

 Local-Access network,
 Trunk Network,
 International Network, and
 Telecommunications Network.

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Local-Access Network
 The local-access network provides the connection
between the customer’s telephone and the local
exchange.
 Most subscriber connections use twisted pairs of
copper wires.
 In urban areas, cables are dug into the ground and
may be very large, having hundreds of pairs.
 In suburban or country areas, overhead cables are
often a more economical solution than underground
cables.
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 An optical connection is used when a high
transmission capacity or very good transmission
quality is required.
 A microwave radio relay is often a more
economical solution than optical fiber when there is
a need to increase data capacity beyond the capacity
of an existing cable network.
 One technology for implementation of ordinary
subscriber loops for fixed telephone service is
wireless local loop (WLL).
 WLL uses radio waves and does not require installation of
subscriber cables.
 It is a quick and low-cost way to connect a new subscriber to
the public network.
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43
 Concentrator
 A device that connects a number of links with only one
destination.
 Local Exchange
 Local or subscriber loops connect subscribers to local
exchanges, which are the lowest-level exchanges in the
switching hierarchy.
 The main tasks of digital local exchange:
 Detect off-hook condition, analyze the dialed number, and
determine if a route is available.
 Connect the subscriber to a trunk exchange for longer distance calls.
 Connect the subscriber to another in the same local area.
 Determine if the called subscriber is free and connect ringing signal
to it.
 Provide meeting and collect charging data for its own subscribers.
 Convert analog speech into a digital signal.
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Trunk Network
 Local exchanges are connected to trunk exchanges,
which are linked to provide a network of
connections from any customer to any other
subscriber in the country.
 High-capacity transmission paths, usually optical
line systems, interconnect trunk exchanges.
 Transport/ transmission network has alternative
routes.
 Trunk exchanges are usually located in major cities.

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46
International Network
 Each country has at least one international switching center to
which trunk exchanges are connected.
 Via this highest switching hierarchy level, international calls are
connected from one country to another and any subscriber is able
to access any of the other more than 2 billion subscribers around
the world.

 High-capacity optical systems interconnect international

exchanges or switching centers of national networks.
 Submarine cables (coaxial cable or optical cable systems),
microwave radio systems, and satellites connect continental
networks to make up the worldwide telecommunications network.

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48
Telecommunications Networks
 Public Networks
 Are owned and managed by telecommunications network operators.
 Any customer can be connected to the public telecommunications
network if he has the correct equipment and an agreement with the
network operator.
 Telephone Network
 PSTN
 Voice communication (fixed telephone service)
 Mobile Telephone Networks
 Mobile or cellular telephone systems.
 Telex Network
 This is a telegraph network that allows teleprinters to be connected by
means of special dedicated switches.

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  Paging Networks
 Paging networks are unidirectional only.
 Pagers are low-cost, lightweight wireless communication systems for
contacting customers without the use of voice.
 Internet
 Radio and Television Networks
 Radio and television networks are usually unidirectional radio
distribution networks for mass communications.

 Private or Dedicated Networks

 Are built and designed to serve the needs of particular
organizations.
 Voice Communication Networks
 E.g.: voice networks used by police and other emergency services, taxi
organizations and railway companies.
 Private or professional mobile radio (PMR).
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  Data Communication Networks

 Are dedicated networks especially designed for the transmission of data

between the offices of an organization.
 Banks, hotel chains, and travel agencies, for example, have their own
separate data networks to update and distribute credit and reservation
information.

 Virtual Private Networks

 It is very expensive for an organization to set up and maintain its

own private network.
 VPN provides a dedicated network for the customer with the help
of public network equipment.
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PSTN -Today

52
Example

53
 ETC Microwave Applications
D Bahir Dar Mekele
/Gonder

B a ckb o n e
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Int.Get Way Int
Receiver
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Jimma/Lekemt Addis Ababa
microwave

ne
kbo
B ac Ｂ Dire Dawa
Nazaret

a - re gion
Awassa Intr
Ａ links

LAN Cellular

Harrar/ Jijiga

54
 Dire Dawa - Addis ETC Network

AddisTX/RX
TX/RX DireDawa
NEC 3000S
Optical Fiber NEC 3000S

CCO8 CC08
Exch Exch
Get Way
Get way
CC08/Lucent/
CC08/Lucent/ Axe Exch CC08/
Axe Exch
Lucent/Axe
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ISDN PRI
Mobile PBX
POTS ISDN BRI LL
DSL Modem
Exch
Mobile
MSC/EXE PAY PHONE FE
DSL Modem

MSC/EXE
XDSL
Mini Exch

Addis Ababa Harrar Dire Dawa

55
 2.6 Telephone Numbering
 An international telephone connection from
any telephone to any other telephone is made
possible by unique identification of each
subscriber socket in the world.
 International prefix, country code, area code
and subscriber number.
 Operator Numbers:
 A subscriber will need to dial additional digits to select
a service provider (network operator).

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  Makes the subscriber
identification unique in
the world.  Is a unique identification of
 Eg: 1 for United States the subscriber inside a
& Canada. geographical area.
44 for UK.

 International access number.  Defines the area

 Tells the network that the inside the country
connection is to be routed via where the call is to be
an international telephone routed.
exchange to another country.
 Eg: 00 or +.

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 Example
 Calling here and UAE from Canada using LG
mobile phone :
Country
International
Code Area
Prefix Subscriber Number
Code

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 Ethiopia
 Number Format

 Subscriber Number: 7 digits (formerly 6 digits)

 Area Code: 2 digits (formerly 1 digit)
 Country Code: 251
 Trunk Prefix: 0/+
 International Prefix: 00

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 WLL – Wireless Local Loop 60
Source: World Telephone Numbering Guide.
 Short Codes

61
Source: World Telephone Numbering Guide.
 2.7 Network Management
 The importance of network management has
grown together with the size and complexity
of the telecommunications network.

 Efficient network management is a key tool in

helping a network operator improve services
and make them more competitive.

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Introduction
 Traditionally, systems that take care of control and
supervisory functions in a telecommunications
network have been know as operation and
maintenance systems.

 Nowadays we prefer to use the term network

management system because the functions
performed by network management systems include
much more than those supported by the
conventional O&M systems.
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 Who Manages Networks?
 Corporate networks are private networks containing
LANs interconnected by circuits provided by a public
telecommunications network operator.
Local or site managers only take care of
LAN networks at each office.

A centralized organization of
company manages the usage
and availability of WAN.

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 The main concerns of network managers of a
company include:
 Network change management (hardware updates);

 The location and repair of malfunctions;

 Software updates and version control;

 Network security.

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 2.8 Traffic Engineering
 Traffic engineering is a key issue for telecommunications network
operators trying to keep customers (subscribers) happy while
minimizing network investments.

 The capacity of the network (e.g., number of channels between

exchanges, exchange sizes, number of radio channels in a cellular
network) should be increased.

 Therefore, the utilization of the network is continuously measured

and traffic demand in the future is estimated.

 Then, based on these estimates, the capacity of the network can be

increased before severe problems occur.
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 Traffic Statistics
 Calling rate (λ) :
 The average number of requests for connection that are
made per unit time.

 Where, n is the average number of calls to and
from a terminal during a period T seconds.

 Holding time (h) :

 The average duration of occupancy of a traffic path by a
call.
 The probability of a call lasting at least t seconds is
given by P(t) = exp(-t/h)
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Note: 50 % probability call lasts longer than 70 sec.
68
 Distribution of destinations :
 Number of calls received at an exchange may be destined
to its own exchange or remote exchange or a foreign
exchange.
 The destination distribution is described as the probability
of a call request being for particular destination.
 Average occupancy (A) :
 Erlangs.
 Also referred as traffic flow or traffic intensity or carried
traffic.
 User behavior :
 The statistical properties of the switching system are a
function of the behavior of users who encounter call
blocking.
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 Traffic Pattern/ Load

 Telephone traffic varies season to season,

month to month, day to day and hour to hour.
 There are also different telephony traffic
models to predict the load.

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Busy Hour
 Busy hour :
 Continuous 60 minutes duration for which the traffic
volume or the number of call attempts is greatest.
 Peak busy hour :
 It is the busy hour each day varies from day to day, over
a number of days.
 Time consistent busy hour :
 The 1 hour period starting at the same time each day for
which the average traffic volume or the number of call
attempts is greatest over the days under consideration.

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 Call Completion Rate (CCR) :
 It is the ratio of the number of successful calls to the number of
attempts.
 A CCR value of 0.75 is considered excellent and 0.70 is usually
expected.
 Busy hour call attempts :
 It is the number of call attempts in a busy hour.
 Busy hour calling rate :
 It is the average number of calls originated by a subscriber during
the busy hour.
 Day-to-day hour traffic ratio :
 It is the ratio of busy hour calling rate to the average calling rate
for that day.
 It is normally 6 or 7 for rural areas and over 20 for city
exchanges. 72
 Units of Telephone Traffic
 Erlangs :
 It is named after the Danish Mathematician, Agner
Krarup Erlang .
 It represents one circuit occupied for one hour.

 Cent Call Seconds (CCS) :

 Measure of traffic intensity.
 It is used as a measure of the amount of traffic
expressed in units of 100 seconds.
 1E = 36 CCS
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 Probability of Blocking
 The problem in traffic engineering is determining the capacity if the
average offered traffic (including the traffic that is blocked) intensity
is known (or estimated).
 Clearly, the capacity should (at least usually) be higher than offered
traffic.

How much higher should the capacity be for the subscribers to

feel that the grade of service is acceptable ?

 The starting point is how often subscribers are allowed to be blocked and
receive a busy tone.
 Probability of blockage for an acceptable GoS is usually set to be in the range
of 0.2% to 5% which means that every 500 th to 20th call is blocked during a
busy hour.
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 Probability of occurrence of x events when the
average number of events is A, is given by:
Poisson Distribution
where,
e = 2.71828
x ! = 1*2*3 … x

 Average number of occupied channels is A erlangs, P(x)

gives the probability that x number of channels is
occupied at a time when a subscriber makes a call.
 Blocking occurs if all n channels are occupied or there
may even be a need for a larger number of channels.
This probability is given by:

75
  On the other hand, one number of channels is always in
use, giving the probability for

 Therefore, P(x>n) can be given as:

 Blocking probability :

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 Example :
A = 1 erlangs, number of available channels, n = 3.
 Blocking probability (the probability that the number
of occupied channels x > 3)
= 1- ( P(0)+P(1)+P(2) )
= 1- (0.37+0.37+0.18)
= 0.08 = 8 %
 P(0) = 0.37, probability that all channels are free.
 P(1) = 0.37, probability that one channel is occupied.
 P(2) = 0.18, probability that two channels are occupied (one is
free).
 Every twelfth call the user makes is blocked and a busy
signal is received.
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