Module 1

Licence Category B1, B2 and B3

Mathematics
1.3 Geometry
 Geometry definitions

 Point :is an exact location in space , but has no size.

 These points are said “Point A,” “Point L”, and “Point F.”
Points are labeled with a CAPITAL letter

2
 Line
 A line is a set of infinitely many points that extend forever in
both directions. It has direction, location and is always
straight.
 Lines are one- dimensional because they only have length
(no width). A line can be named or identified using any two
points on that line or with a lower-case, italicized letter.

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 Plane
 A plane is an infinite number of intersecting lines that extend
forever in all directions.
 Planes are considered to be two- dimensional because they have a
length and a width.
 A plane can be classified by any three points in the plane.

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 Simple geometric constructions
 “Construction” in Geometry means to draw shapes, angles or lines
accurately
 no numbers are involved.
 Here some of the more simple geometric constructions
 Line segment bisector
 Angle bisector
 30 degree angle
 45 degree angle
 60 degree angle
 90 degree angle (right angle)
 Sum of ‘n’ angles
 Difference of two angles
 Supplementary angle
 Complementary angle
 Constructing 75° 105° 120° 135° 150° angles and more
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 Line segment bisector

• Line segment bisector is a line that intersects a line segment at its

midpoint and is perpendicular to that line segment

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 Line segment bisector

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 Line segment bisector

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 Line segment bisector

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 Angle bisector
 An angle bisector bisects any given angle into two angles of equal
size, each exactly half the angle of the original.

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 Angle bisector

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 Angle bisector

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 30 degree angle
 Here we show how to construct (draw) a 30 degree angle with
compass and straightedge or ruler.
 It works by first creating a rhombus and then a diagonal of that
rhombus.
 Using the properties of a rhombus it can be shown that the angle
created has a measure of 30 degrees.

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 30 degree angle

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 30 degree angle

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 CONT…
 Line segments PT, TR, RS, PS, TS are congruent (5 red lines)
 PTRS is a rhombus. A rhombus is a quadrilateral with four
congruent sides.
 Line segment AS is half the length of TS, and angle PAS is a right
angle. Diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles.
 Line segment AS is half the length of PS. PS is congruent to TS.
 Triangle ΔPAS is a 30-60-90 triangle. ΔPAS is a right triangle with
two sides in the ratio 1:2. (Third side would be √3 by Pythagoras).

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 45 degree angle
 Here we show how to construct (draw) a 45 degree angle with
compass and straightedge or ruler.
 It works by constructing an isosceles right triangle, which has
interior angles of 45, 45 and 90 degrees.
 We use one of those 45 degree angles to get the result we need.

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 45 degree angle

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 45 degree angle

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 45 degree angle

Line segment AB is perpendicular to PQ.

Constructed that way. See Constructing the
perpendicular bisector of a line.
Triangle APC is a right triangle. Angle ACP is 90°.
Line segments CP and CA are congruent. Drawn
with same compass width.
Triangle ΔAPC is isosceles. CP = AC
Angle APC has a measure of 45°. In isosceles
triangle APC, base angles CPA and CAP are
congruent. (See Isosceles Triangles).
The third angle ACP is 90° and the interior angles
of a triangle always add to 180. So both base
angles CPA and CAP are 45°.
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 60 degree angle
 Here we show how to construct (draw) a 60 degree angle with
compass and straightedge or ruler.
 This construction works by creating an equilateral triangle. Recall
that an equilateral triangle has all three interior angles 60°.
 We use one of those angles to get the desired 60 degree result.

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 60 degree angle

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 60 degree angle

 Line segments AB, PB, PA are

congruent. All drawn with the same
compass width.
 Triangle APB is an equilateral
triangle. Equilateral triangles are
those with all three sides the same
length.
 All three interior angles of an
equilateral triangle have a measure
of 60°.

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 90 degree angle (right angle)
 Here we show how to construct (draw) a 90 degree angle with
compass and straightedge or ruler.
 There are various ways to do this, but in this construction we use a
property of Thales Theorem. Thales's theorem states that if A, B,
and C are distinct points on a circle where the line AC is a
diameter, the angle ABC is a right angle. Thales Theorem says that
any diameter of a circle subtends a right angle to any point on the
circle.
 We create a circle where the vertex of the desired right angle is a
point on a circle.


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 90 degree angle (right angle)

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 90 degree angle (right angle)

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 Cont.

 The line segment AB is a diameter of

the circle centre D. AB is a straight line
through the centre.
 Angle ACB has a measure of 90°. The
diameter of a circle always subtends
an angle of 90° to any point (C) on the
circle. See Thales theorem.


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 Sum of ‘n’ angles

 This construction takes one given angle and copies it adjacent to

another, creating a larger angle whose measure is the sum of the
two.
 By carrying out this construction more than once, any number of
angles can be summed.
 This can be done by adding each successive angle to the left or the
right of the accumulating angle.
 In a similar way, angles can be subtracted
 Start with two angles, ∠BAC and ∠RPQ.
 The goal is to add ∠BAC to ∠RPQ.

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 Adding angles
 Set the compasses on A, and
adjust to any convenient width.

 Make an arc across both legs of

the angle, creating points J and K.

 Set the compasses on P and make

an arc to the left of, and across,
RQ.

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 Adding angles
 Set the compasses on J and
adjust the width to point K.

 Set the compasses on L and

make an arc across the previous
one, creating point M.

 Draw a line from P, through M

and on to new point S
 Done. The angle BAC has been
added to angle RPQ.

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 Adding angles
 Done. The angle BAC has been
added to angle RPQ.

 Angle ∠BAC is congruent to

angle ∠SPR
 ∠SPQ = ∠SPR + ∠RPQ
Adjacent angles.
 ∠SPQ = ∠BAC + ∠RPQ

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 Difference of two angles
 This construction shows how to create an angle which is the
difference between two given angles.
 This is very similar to Sum of angles, except that the second angle
is drawn inside the first, effectively subtracting the angles
 Start with two given angles ∠BAC and ∠RPQ.

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 Difference of two angles

 Set the compasses on A, and

adjust to any convenient
width.

 Make an arc across both legs

of the angle, creating points J
and K.

 Move the compasses to point

P and make an arc to the right
of RP, crossing RP at the new
point L.
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 Difference of two angles
 Set the compasses width to
the distance JK

 Without changing the

compasses, set them on point
L and make an arc across the
previous arc, creating point M.

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 Difference of two angles

 Draw a line from P through M and on to

new point S.

 Done. The angle ∠SPQ is the difference

between the angles ∠RPQ and ∠BAC.

 If the second angle is larger than the first,

then the points M (and so S) will be
below the line PQ. The difference angle
will still be ∠SPQ as before.
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 CONT…
 If for example you ‘subtracted’ 90° angle from a 30°angle,
arithmetically this would be negative: but in geometry, you cannot
have negative angles* so the difference between the two angles is
60°.
 30 – 90 = -60
 So the precise definition of what this construction does is, for two
angles A and B, it finds the absolute value of a – b.
 Difference = │A – B│

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 Supplementary angle
 Supplementary angle is one that makes the given angle become
180°.
 So an angle of 45° has a supplementary angle of 180° - 45° = 135°.
 Start with a angle BAC.

 Extend either leg (here AC) backwards, away from the interior of
the angle.

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 Supplementary angle
 Done. The angle ∠DAB and the given
angle ∠BAC are supplementary (i.e.,
they add to 180°.)

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 Complementary angle
 The complementary angle is one
that makes the given angle become
90°.
 So an angle of 30° has a
supplementary angle of 90° - 30° =
60°.
 Start with a angle BAC.
 Extend either leg (here AC)
backwards, away from the interior
of the angle

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 Complementary angle
 Set the compass medium width and
from A, describe two arcs, one on AC
and one on the extension. Mark them P
and Q.

 Make the compass width wider, and

from P make an arc above A.

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 Complementary angle
 Repeat from Q, creating the point F above A.

 Draw a line from A, up through F.

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 Complementary angle

 Done. The angle ∠FAB and the given

angle ∠BAC are complementary (i.e.,
they add to 90°.)
 ∠FAC = 90°. Drawn at point A using
the construction “perpendicular to a
line at a point”.
 ∠FAB + ∠BAC = ∠FAC. Adjacent
angles
 ∠FAB and ∠BAC are complementary.
∠FAB + ∠BAC = 90°.


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Constructing 75° 105° 120° 135° 150° angles and more
 Adding angles
 To make Combine angles
75° 30° + 45°
105° 45° + 60°
120° 30° + 90° or 60° + 60°
135° 90° + 45°
150° 60° + 90°

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 Angles

 Degrees and radians: measuring angles

 We measure the size of an angle using degrees.
 We can also use radians to measure angles.
 There are 2π radians in 360°
 1 radian = 57.3 degrees.
 To convert n° to radian ,
 An acute angle is an angle measuring between 0 and 90 degrees

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 Angles
 An obtuse angle is an angle
measuring between 90 and
180 degrees.

 A right angle is an angle

measuring 90 degrees

 A straight angle is an angle

measuring 180 degrees

 A reflex angle is an angle

measuring between 180
and 360 degrees
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 Triangles
 There are four types of triangle:
 Equilateral triangle :a triangle has got 3
sides of equal length and 3 angles that
are equal

 Isosceles triangle: a triangle has got two

sides of equal length and 2 angles equal.

 Right-angled triangle contains a right

angle (an angle of 90˚).

 Scalene triangle triangle has got no

sides of equal length and no angles
the same.

 Triangles always have 3 sides. The interior

angles of a triangle add up
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 Congruent triangles
 Two triangles which have equal angles
and are the same size but may be
oriented differently.
 How to tell if triangles are
congruent ???
 SSS- All three corresponding sides are
equal in length.
 SAS (side angle side) - A pair of
corresponding sides and the included
angle are equal.
 ASA (angle side angle) - A pair of
corresponding angles and the included
side are equal
 AAS (angle angle side) - A pair of
corresponding angles and a non-
included side are equal.
 HL (hypotenuse leg of a right triangle)
- Two right triangles are congruent if
the hypotenuse and one leg are equal.
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 Similar triangles
 Similar triangles are two
triangles which have the same
angles but are of different size.

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 Pythagoras theorem
 Pythagoras theorem states that, in any right-angled triangle, the
square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares on the
other two sides.

 EXAMPLE: Calculate the length of the hypotenuse BC in the triangle

shown below.
a² + b² = c²
8² + 15² = c²
289 = c²
C=
c = 17 cm
 Identifying right-angled triangles using Pythagoras’ theorem If the
squares of the two shorter sides add up to the square of the
hypotenuse, the triangle contains a right angle.
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 Pythagoras theorem
 Identifying right-angled triangles using Pythagoras’ theorem If the
squares of the two shorter sides add up to the square of the
hypotenuse, the triangle contains a right angle.
 EXAMPLE: Does the triangle ABC contain a right angle?
a² + b² = c²
5² + 6² = c²
61 = c²

 The hypotenuse of the triangle is 8. 8² = 64

 . Therefore, the triangle does not contain a right angle
 , Therefore, the angle is∠BAC 90o does not contain a right angle

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 Pythagorean triples
 A “Pythagorean triple” is a set of positive integers, a, b and c that
fits the rule:
 Examples of Pythagorean triple:
3, 4 ,5
5, 12, 13
8, 15, 17
9, 40, 41

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 Polygons
 A polygon is a plane shape (two-dimensional) with
straight sides. Examples include triangles, quadrilaterals,
pentagons, hexagons and so on.
 A regular polygon has : all sides equal all angles equal.
 The Exterior Angle is the angle between any side of a
shape, and a line extended from the next side
 All the Exterior Angles of a polygon add up to 360°,
, , where ‘n’ is the number of sides.
 The interior angle and exterior angle are measured from
the same line, so they add up to 180°
Text Mistake: Hexagon
6sides have exterior
 We know the exterior angle= 360°/n angle of 60 not 45

 So :
 So :
 be rearranged like this:

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 Circumcircle, incircle, radius and apothem
 These are the names of the “outer” and “inner”
circles (and each radius) that can be drawn on a
polygon as shown below.
 We can learn a lot about regular polygons by
breaking them into triangles as shown.
 The “base” of the triangle is one side of the
polygon, and its height is the “apothem” of the
polygon

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 A Smaller triangle
 By cutting the triangle in half we get this:
 The small triangle is right-angled and so we can use sine, cosine
and tangent to find how the side, radius, apothem and “n” are
related

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 Quadrilaterals

 There are 6 special types of quadrilateral:

 Rectangle
 Rhombus
 Square
 Parallelogram
 Trapezoid (US), trapezium (UK and Europe)
 Kite

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 Quadrilaterals
 A rectangle is a four-sided shape where every angle is a right angle
(90°). Also opposite sides are parallel and of equal length.

 A rhombus is a four-sided shape where all sides have equal length.

Also opposite sides are parallel and opposite angles are equal.
Another interesting thing is that the diagonals (dashed lines in
second figure) meet in the middle at a right angle

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 Square
• A square has equal sides and every angle is a
right angle (90°).
• Also opposite sides are parallel, all angles are
90°and all sides are equal length

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 Parallelogram
• A parallelogram has opposite sides parallel
and equal in length.
• Also opposite angles are equal (angles “a” are
the same, and angles “b” are the same).
• Note: squares, rectangles and rhombuses are
all parallelograms.

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 Trapezoid (US) – trapezium (UK and
Europe)
• A trapezoid has a pair of opposite sides parallel.
• It is called an Isosceles trapezoid if the sides that
are not parallel, are equal in length and both
angles coming from a parallel side are equal, as
shown below.

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 Irregular quadrilaterals
• The only regular quadrilateral is a square.
• So all other quadrilaterals are irregular.

• Complex quadrilaterals
• When two sides cross over, you call it a
“complex” or “self- intersecting” quadrilateral
like those shown below.

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 Polygons
• A quadrilateral is a polygon.
• In fact, it is a 4-sided polygon, just
like a triangle is a 3-sided polygon, a
pentagon is a 5-sided polygon, and
so on.

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 Circles
• An angle made from points sitting on the
circles circumference.
• A and C are “end points”. B is the “apex point”

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 Angle at centre theorem
• An inscribed angle a° is half of the central
angle 2a°

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Angle subtended by same arc theorem
• Keeping the endpoints fixed, the angle a° is
always the same, no matter where it is on the
circumference.

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 Angle in a semicircle theorem (Thales’
theorem)
• An angle inscribed in a semicircle is always a
right angle.
• (The end points are either end of a circles
diameter, the apex point can be anywhere on
the circumference.)
•

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 Cont…
• The inscribed angle 90° is half of the central
angle 180°.

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 Cyclic quadrilateral
• A “cyclic” quadrilateral has every vertex on a
circle's circumference.
• A cyclic quadrilateral's opposite angles add to
180°.
• a + c = 180°
• b + d = 180°

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 Tangent angle
• A tangent is a line that just touches a circle at
one point.
• It always forms a right angle with the circle's
radius.

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 Bar graph

 Bar graphs are used to compare things between different

groups or to track changes over time
 it can be displayed vertically or horizontally.

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 Histograms

 A histogram is a graphical display of data using bars of

different heights.
 It is similar to a bar chart, but a histogram groups numbers
into ranges.

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 Frequency histogram
 A frequency histogram is a special histogram that uses
vertical columns to show frequencies (how many times each
score occurs):

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 Line graphs
 A line graph shows information that is connected in some way
(such as change over time).
 Line graphs are used to track changes over short and long
periods of time.

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 Pie chart
 A pie chart is a special chart that uses “pie slices” to show
relative sizes of data.
 Pie charts are best to use when you are trying to compare
parts of a whole. They do not show changes over time

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 Area or system graph

 Area (or system) graphs are very similar to line graphs.

 They can be used to track changes over time for one or more
groups or systems on an aircraft.

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 Coordinates
The x- and y-axis
• An equation involving two variables can be
represented by a graph drawn on coordinates
axes
• consist of a horizontal line (x- axis) and a
vertical line (y-axis).

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 Cont…
• Point of intersection of these two lines is called
the origin (usually denoted by the letter ‘O’).

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Graphs of equations and functions
• (Sometimes known as ‘X-Y plots’) are used to
determine relationships between the two
different things.
• The x-axis is used to measure one event (or
variable) and the y-axis is used to measure the
other.
• Both variables increase at the same time, they
have a positive relationship.

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 Cont…
• If one variable decreases while the other
increases, they have a negative relationship.
• Sometimes the variables do not follow any
pattern and have no relationship
• There are 8 different types of X-Y plot:
linear Exponential
quadratic logarithmic
power polynomial sinusoidal
rational
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 Linear functions
• These are functions of the form:

where “m” and “c” are constants.

• A typical use for linear functions is converting
from one quantity or set of units to another.
• Graphs of these functions are straight lines.

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 Cont…
• “m” is the slope and “c” is the y-axis intercept.
If m is positive, then the line rises to the right
and if m is negative then the line falls to the
right.

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 Quadratic functions
• These are functions of the form:

y= ax² + bx + c
where a, b and c are constants.
• Their graphs are called parabolas.

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 Cont…
• Falling objects move along parabolic paths.
• If “a” is a positive number, then the parabola
opens upward and if “a” is a negative number
then the parabola opens downward.

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 Power functions
• These are functions of the form:

where “a” and “b” are constants.

• If b = 2 it is called a “squaring function”.
• If b = 3 it is called a “cubing function”.
• If b = ½ it is the same as y = a √x, and it is
called a square root function.

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 Cont…
• If b = ⅓ It is the same as y = a ᶟ√x, and it is
called a cube root function.

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 Exponential functions
• These are functions of the form:

• If the base b is greater than 1 then the result is

an exponential growth.
• If the base “b” is smaller than 1 then the result
is exponential decay

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 Logarithmic functions

where “x” is in the natural logarithm and “a”

and “b” are constants.
• They are only defined for positive “x”.
• For small x they are negative and for large x
they are positive but stay small

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 Sinusoidal functions

where “a”, “b” and “c” are constants

• Note that the term “sinusoidal” denotes only
the shape of the curve.
• Sinusoidal functions are useful for describing
anything that has a wave shape with respect
to position or time
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 Plotting graphs of equations
• An equation involving two variables can be
represented, on coordinate axes, by means of
a graph
• For a given range of values of x, the
corresponding y values can be calculated from
the equation being considered.
• The points obtained can then be plotted and
joined together to form the graph

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 Cont…
• Draw the graph of y = 2x + 1 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 5.
• By taking x values of 0, 1, 2, …5, we can calculate
the corresponding y values, as shown below, by
first evaluating the component parts of the
equation.

• In this example the points to be plotted are:

(0, 1), (1, 3), (2, 5), (3, 7), (4, 9), (5, 11).
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 Cont…

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 The straight line
• A straight line is defined as the shortest
distance between two points.
• The equation of a straight line is given by:

where m represents the slope (also known as

“gradient”) of the line and c is the point where
the line crosses the y-axis (i.e. they intercept).
• The point where the line crosses the x-axis is
called the x intercept
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 Graph of y = 2x
• In this example, m = 2 and c = 0
• Note that whenever c = 0, the line will pass
through the origin

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 Graph of y = 6 - 3x
• In this example, m = - 3 and c = 6
• As c = 6, we know that this line cuts the y axis
at y = 6 (this can be verified by substituting x =
0 into the equation of the line, as x = 0 along
the y axis).

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 Special cases
• A straight line parallel to the x-axis takes the
form y = constant.
• Similarly, a straight line parallel to the y-axis
takes the form x = constant.

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 Determining y = mx + c
• Given the coordinates of two points, (, ) and
(, ) say, we can calculate the equation of the
straight line that passes through these points.
• Ex. Find the equation of the straight line that
passes through the points (1, 4) and (3, 10).

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 Method 1

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 Cont…

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 Method 2

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 Simple trigonometry
• It studies the relationships involving lengths
and angles of triangles.
Sine, cosine and tangent
• If one angle of a triangle is 90 degrees and one
of the other angles is known, the third is
thereby fixed, because the three angles of any
triangle add up to 180 degrees.
• The two acute angles therefore add up to 90
degrees: they are complementary angles
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 Sine
• Function (sin), defined as the ratio of the side
opposite the angle to the hypotenuse.

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 Cosine
• Function (cos), defined as the ratio of the
adjacent leg to the hypotenuse.
• Tangent function (tan), defined as the ratio of
the opposite leg to the adjacent leg.

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 Trigonometrically relationships
• By using Pythagoras, you are now able to
partially solve right-angled triangles you can
find the third side of a right-angled triangle
when given its other 2 sides
• find all their 6 elements (angles and sides).

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 Similar triangles
• Are triangles which are the same shape, one is
simply an enlargement of the other.
• Two important properties of similar triangles
are:

 Their corresponding angles are equal.

 Their corresponding sides are proportional

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 Example

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 Cont…
• A convenient method to help you to
remember them is “SOHCAHTOA” or
“SohCahToa”
S = sin, C = cos, T = tan.

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 Cont…
• For the triangle shown below find:
1. Sine of angle B
2. Cosine of angle B
3. Tangent of angle B

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 Small and large angles
• When angle A is very small:

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 When angle A is large

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 Summary
• We can summarise the above

• The max. value of sin and cos is 1

• The max. value of tan Is ∞
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 30, 60, 90 triangle
• We have seen that trigonometrical ratios vary
as the angle varies and have calculated values
for 0° and 90°. We will now calculate the
values for 30° and 60°.

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 Example
• in right-angled triangle ABD

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 Graphical representation of sine, cosine
and tangent
• The sine curve

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 The cosine curve

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 The tan curve

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 Cont…
• sin 30° = cos 60° = 0.5000
• sin 45° = cos 45° = 0.7071
(it has the same value)
• sin 60° = cos 30° = 0.8660
• sin 80° = cos 10° and so on.
• Sin 90° =1 ; cos 90° = 0

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 Special trigonometric functions and
identities
• Terms can be derived from the basic terms sin
and cos.
• These terms are called cot (cotangent), sec
(secant) and cosec (cosecant). They are
determined as follows:

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 Reciprocal relations

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 Rules
• Square relations (also known as the
fundamental identities):

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Finding the length of an unknown side
• how to solve a right-angled triangle, given any
side and 2 angles.
• From the right-angled triangle shown below

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 Cont…
• In the right-angled triangle ABC shown below
(right), find angle A and side c.

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 To find side c

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Rectangular and polar coordinates
• To pinpoint where you are on a map or graph
there are two main systems:
• Rectangular coordinates Using rectangular
(also called “Cartesian”) coordinates, you
mark a point by how far along and how far up
it is (x and y coordinates):

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 Cont…
• Polar coordinates Using polar coordinates, you
mark a point by how far away, and what angle
it is (r and θ coordinates):

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 Converting
• To convert from one to the other, you need to
solve the triangle

• To convert from rectangular to polar If you

have a point in rectangular coordinates (x, y)
and need it in polar coordinates (r, θ), you need
to solve a triangle where you know two sides

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 Example
What is (12, 5) in polar coordinates?
• (Use Pythagoras Theorem to find the long side
hypotenuse):

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 Cont…
• Use the tangent function to find the angle

• So, to convert from rectangular coordinates

(x, y) to polar coordinates (r, θ):

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 To convert from polar to rectangular
coordinates
• If you have a point in polar coordinates (r, θ),
and need it in rectangular coordinates (x, y)
you need to solve a triangle where you know
the long side and the angle:
• Example: what is (13, 23°) in rectangular
coordinates?

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 Cont…
• Use the cosine function for x:
• Rearranging and solving:

• Use the sine function for y:

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 ANY QUESTIONS?
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 THE END

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