ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Introduction

• What is your body made of? Your first thought might be that
it is made up of different organs—such as your heart, lungs,
and stomach—that work together to keep your body going.
• Or you might zoom in a level and say that your body is made
up of many different types of cells.
• However, at the most basic level, your body—and, in fact, all
of life, as well as the nonliving world—is made up of atoms,
often organized into larger structures called molecules.
 Matter and elements

• Most of the Universe consists of matter and energy.

• Energy is the capacity to do work.

• The term matter refers to anything that occupies space and has
mass—in other words, the “stuff” that the universe is made of.

• E.g.: air, water, trees

• All matter is made up of substances called elements that

cannot be broken down to other substances through ordinary
chemical reactions with different chemical or physical
properties
 Matter and elements
• Elements are substances consisting of one type of atom, for
example Carbon atoms make up diamond, and also graphite.
• Gold, for instance, is an element, and so is carbon.
• Pure (24K) gold is composed of only one type of atom, gold
atoms
• There are 118 elements, but only 92 occur naturally.
• The remaining elements have only been made in laboratories
and are unstable The elements hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and
oxygen are the elements that make up most living organisms.
• Some other elements found in living organisms are:
magnesium, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium.
 Molecules
• Molecules are made up of atoms that are held together by
chemical bonds.
• These bonds form as a result of the sharing or exchange of
electrons among atoms.
• The atoms of certain elements readily bond with other atoms
to form molecules.
• Examples of Molecules:
– Hydrogen gas molecule = H₂
– Nitrogen gas = N₂
• The atoms of some elements do not easily bond with other
atoms. Examples are neon and argon.
 Molecules
• Molecules are always in motion.
• In solids and liquids, they are packed tightly together.
• In a solid, the motion of the molecules can be likened
to rapid vibration.
• In a liquid, the molecules can move freely among each
other, in a sort of slithering fashion.
• In a gas, the density of molecules is generally less than
in a liquid or solid of the same chemical compound,
and they move even more freely than in a liquid.
 Compound
• The compound is the chemical
combination of elements,
bonded together in specific
proportion.
• The molecules formed by the
combination of different types of
atoms is known as compound.
• Examples of Compounds:
– Carbon Dioxide gas = CO₂
– Water = H₂O
• Example : Pure water is a compound made from
two elements - hydrogen and oxygen.
• The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in water is
always 2:1.
• Each molecule of water contains two hydrogen
atoms bonded to a single oxygen atom.
• The type of bonds holding elements together in a compound
can vary:
• two common types are
– covalent bonds and
– ionic bonds.
 Explanation
• Atoms are combined chemically to form molecules.
• The substance containing same kind of atoms is
known as elements.
• Similarly, the substance containing same type of
molecules is known as compound.
• In another way, the smallest constituent unit of
element is atom and smallest unit of compound is
molecule.
 Mixtures
• The mixture is the physical combination of substances, bonded
together in any proportion.
• A mixture forms when two or more substances are combined
such that each substance retains its own chemical identity
• Two broad categories of mixtures are heterogeneous and
homogeneous mixtures.
• Heterogeneous mixtures are not uniform throughout the
composition (e.g. gravel),
• while homogeneous mixtures have the same phase and
composition, no matter where you sample them (e.g., air).
• The distinction between heterogeneous and homogeneous
mixtures is a matter of magnification or scale.
 Atoms
• Atoms are basic building blocks of matter, and cannot be
chemically subdivided by ordinary means.
• The word atom is derived from the Greek word atom which
means indivisible.
• The ancient Greek philosophers developed the concept of the
atom and they considered it as the fundamental particle that
could not be broken down.
• From the work of Enrico Fermi and his colleagues, it was
known that the atom is divisible, often releasing tremendous
energies as in nuclear explosions or (in a controlled fashion in)
thermonuclear power plants.
 Sub atomic particles
• Subatomic particles were discovered
during the 1800s.
• Atoms consist of three primary
particles
• electrons
• protons
• Neutrons Protons
• Nucleus - small, dense, positively Neutrons
charged region in the center of the
Electrons
atom
- protons - positively charged
particles
- neutrons - uncharged particles
 Protons
• The proton is located in the center (or nucleus) of an atom,
each atom has at least one proton.
• Protons have a positive charge of +1, and a mass of
approximately 1 atomic mass unit (amu).
• Proton is nearly 1,837 times as heavy as an electron, but
equal in charge and opposite in sign to the electron
• Number of protons in the nucleus is electrically balanced by
an equal number of electrons
• eg. oxygen atom: contains 8 electrons
and protons: neutral atom, no net charge

• Elements differ from each other in the number of protons they

have, e.g. Hydrogen has 1 proton; Helium has 2.
 Neutrons
• The neutron also is located in the atomic
nucleus (except in Hydrogen).
• The neutron has no charge, and a mass of
slightly over 1 amu almost exactly equal to
that of the proton
 Electron
• A negatively charged subatomic particle that is found in the
space outside the nucleus
• name comes from the Greek word for amber
- Amber: material discovered by early Greeks that was found
to exhibit the effects of electrical charging
• The electron is a very small particle, the charge on an electron
is -1. Its mass is negligible (approximately 1800 electrons are
needed to equal the mass of one proton).
• Because they move at speeds near the speed of light, the
precise location of electrons is hard to pin down.
• Electrons occupy orbitals, or areas where they have a high
statistical probability of occurring.
properties of these subatomic particles.

Name Charge Location Mass

Proton +1 atomic nucleus 1.6726 X 10-27 kg

Neutron 0 atomic nucleus 1.6750 X 10-27 kg

Electron -1 electron orbital 9.1095 X 10-31 kg

 Properties of Subatomic Particles

Relative Relative mass Actual mass

Particle Symbol
charge (mass of proton = 1) (g)

Electron e– 1– 1/1840 9.11  10–28

Proton p+ 1+ 1 1.67  10–24

Neutron n0 0 1 1.67  10–24

 Size of an atom

• Atom: 10-10 m

• Nucleus: 10-14 m

• Proton: 10-15 m

• Neutron: 10-10 m

• Electron: <10-18 m
 Characteristics of Atomic Particles
2.1 Composition of the Atom

• Electrons are negatively charged particles

located outside of the nucleus of an atom
• Protons and electrons have charges that are
equal in magnitude but opposite in sign
• A neutral atom that has no electrical charge has
the same number of protons and electrons
• Electrons move very rapidly in a relatively large
volume of space while the nucleus is small and
dense
 History and discovery of Atom
Democritus (460 BC)
• Greek Philosopher in the 4th century B.C -First to suggest the existence
of atoms
• Believed that all matter consisted of extremely small particles
• Suggested these particles are made of indivisible units called
atoms
• Term atom is derived from a Greek word meaning “unable to
divide”
• Believed there were different types of atoms, liquids: round,
smooth solids: rough, prickly
• Unable to provide evidence that an atom existed
• It was not based on the scientific method
• Just philosophy
 Dalton’s Theory

John Dalton (1803)

Dalton came with his Atomic theory as a
result of his research into gases
- interested in predicting the weather so..
• studied the behavior of gases in the air,
concluded that a gas consists of
individual particles
– Known for : Atomic theory, Law of
John Dalton
Multiple Proportions, Dalton’s Law of
(1766 – 1844)
Partial Pressure
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory (experiment based)
5 Principles
1. All matter is made of indivisible and indestructible atoms (i.e.) they can
neither be created nor be destroyed

2. All atoms of a given (same) element are identical in their physical and
chemical properties(i.e.) same shape, size, mass and similar chemical properties

3. Atoms of different elements differ in their physical and chemical

properties properties (i.e.) same shape, size, mass and similar chemical properties

4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole- numbers ratios to

form compounds (molecules) e.g carbon and oxygen combine in the ratio 1 :2
to form carbondioxide

5. Chemical reactions consist of the combination, separation, or

rearrangement of atoms but never changed into atoms of another element
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory …
• Limitations:

– It could not explain why and how do atoms combine

together to form compound atoms (molecules)

– It could not explain the nature of forces which hold atoms

together in compound atoms

– It could not explain why atoms cannot exist in free state

and why compound atoms can exist freely

– NOT discarded only modified

History of Atom

Joseph John Thomson

In 1904, J. J. Thomson suggested a

model for the atom called the

‘Thomson’s atomic model’ – “Plum

Pudding Model”
 Thomson’s Atomic Model- Postulates
• According to the postulates of Thomson’s atomic model, an
atom resembles a sphere of positive charge with electrons
(negatively charged particles) present inside the sphere.
• Thomson’s atomic model resembles a spherical plum pudding as
well as a watermelon.
• It resembles a plum pudding because the electrons in the
model look like the dry fruits embedded in a sphere of positive
charge just like a spherical plum pudding.
• The model has also been compared to a watermelon because
the red edible part of a watermelon was compared to the
sphere having a positive charge and the black seeds filling the
watermelon looked similar to the electrons inside the sphere.
 Thomson’s Model

• The Plum Pudding (Chocolate Chip Cookie) Model

- negative particles are evenly scattered throughout an atom

with a positively charged mass of matter
- similar to that of chocolate chip ice cream
- later proved to be incorrect
 Limitations of Thomson’s Atomic Model

• Thomson’s atomic model failed to explain how

the positive charge holds on the electrons
inside the atom.
• It also failed to explain an atom’s stability.
• The theory did not mention anything about
the nucleus of an atom.
• It was unable to explain the scattering
experiment of Rutherford.
 History of Atom
Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937)

• Ernest Rutherford (former student of Thomson) was

responsible for a remarkable series of discoveries in the
fields of radioactivity and nuclear physics.
• He discovered alpha and beta rays, set forth the laws of
radioactive decay, and identified alpha particles as
helium nuclei.
• Most important, he postulated the nuclear structure of
the atom.
• Known for:

Father of Nuclear Physics

Rutherford model

Rutherford scattering

Discovery of proton

Coining the term 'artificial disintegration‘

 Rutherford's alpha particle scattering
experiment
• In this experiment, high energy α-particles
from a radioactive source were directed at a
thin foil (about 100nm thickness) of gold.
• A circular, fluorescent zinc sulfide screen was
present around the thin gold foil.
• A tiny flash of light was produced at a point
on the screen whenever α-particles struck it.
Rutherford's alpha particle scattering experiment (1911)

α particles are very small and positively charged

 Results

• Based on Thomson’s model, the mass of every atom in the

gold foil should be evenly spread over the entire atom.
• Therefore, when α-particles hit the foil, it is expected that
they would slow down and change directions only by small
angles as they pass through the foil.
• However, the results from Rutherford’s experiment were
unexpected
• Most of the α-particles passed undeflected through the foil.
• A small number of α-particles were deflected by small angles.
• Very few α-particles (about 1 in 20,000) bounced back.
 Results of the Rutherford experiment

(a)The results that the metal foil (b) Actual results

experiment would have yielded if the
plum pudding model had been correct
Rutherford’s Model of Atom …
– It was found that although most of the particles scattered through

angles of the order of 10 or less

– About 99% of the alpha particles pass straight through the foil

– But a small number say about 1 in every 10,000 scattered through

900 or even 1800

– Some of the alpha particles are deflected through small angles

– A very small number of the alpha particles rebound off the gold
foil
 Gold Foil Experiment Cont.
Why did the others pass through then?
 Nuclear Model Of The Atom -
• Based on his observations and conclusions, Rutherford
proposed his model of the structure of the atom. According to
this model –
• Most of the mass of the atom and the positive charge is densely
concentrated in a very small region in the atom. Rutherford
called this region the nucleus.
• Electrons surround the nucleus and move around it at very high
speeds in circular paths called orbits. This arrangement also
resembles the solar system, where the nucleus forms the sun
and the electrons are the revolving planets. Therefore, it is also
referred to as the Planetary Model.
• Electrostatic forces of attraction hold the nucleus and electrons
together.
 Conclusions - Rutherford experiment

• Based on the above results, Rutherford made the following

conclusions about the structure of the atom:
• Since most of the α-particles passed through the foil undeflected,
most of the space in the atom is empty.
• The deflection of a few positively charged α-particles must be due
to the enormous repulsive force. This suggests that the positive
charge is not uniformly spread throughout the atom as Thomson
had proposed. The positive charge has to be concentrated in a
very small volume to deflect the positively charged α-particles.
• Rutherford’s calculations show that the volume of the nucleus is
very small compared to the total volume of the atom. The radius
of an atom is about 10-10m, while that of the nucleus is 10-15m.
 Conclusion of Rutherford’s model
• On this basis, Rutherford concluded that

– The whole of the positive charge of atom must be

concentrated in a very small space
– Atom is mostly hollow inside (in no case, it can be solid, as
was assumed by Thomson)
– Very few of the α- particles were scattered at angles greater
than 900 from their initial path and returned back as they
experience a strong repulsive force
– Since α- particles are positively charged, the part of the atom
deflecting them must also be positive
• Rutherford assumed that the positive charge in the atom is concentrated

in an extremely small space at the centre of the atom, called the

‘nucleus’

• The nucleus of an atom has a relatively small diameter compared with

that of the atom

• Most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus

• In this model, the mass of the atom (leaving the mass of its electrons)

and its whole positive charge are concentrated at the centre of the atom

in a nucleus of radius 10-15 m

• The electrons are distributed around the nucleus in a hollow sphere of

radius 10-10 m

• The total negative charge of the electrons is equal to the positive

charge of the nucleus, the atom as a whole being electrically neutral.

• Rutherford assumed that the electrons in the atom are not stationary (if

they were so, they would be pulled into the nucleus due to strong

electrostatic attraction)
• But electrons are revolving around the nucleus in different

orbits and the necessary centripetal force is provided by the

electrostatic forces of attraction between the electrons and

the nucleus

• Rutherford’s atomic model was supported by the periodic

table of elements (advantage)

 Drawbacks Of Rutherford’s Atomic Model
• According to Rutherford’s atomic model, the electrons (planets) move
around the nucleus (sun) in well-defined orbits.
• Since a body that moves in an orbit must undergo acceleration, the
electrons, in this case, must be under acceleration.
• According to Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory, charged particles when
accelerated must emit electromagnetic radiation.
• Therefore, an electron in an orbit will emit radiation and eventually the
orbit will shrink.
• If this is true, then the electron will spiral into the nucleus.
• But this does not happen. Thus, Rutherford’s model does not explain the
stability of the atom.
• Contrarily, let’s consider that the electrons do not move and are
stationary. Then the electrostatic attraction between the electrons and
the dense nucleus will pull the electrons into the nucleus to form a
miniature version of Thomson’s model.
• Rutherford’s model also does not state anything about the distribution of
 History of Atom
Niels Henrik David Bohr (1913)

• A Danish physicist who made foundational

contributions to understanding atomic
structure and quantum mechanics

• In 1913, he developed Bohr model of atomic

structure, in which he introduced the theory
of electrons orbiting around the nucleus

• He refined Rutherford's idea

 Postulates of the Bohr Atomic Model
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus in a fixed
circular path termed “orbits” or “shells” or “energy
level.”
• The orbits are termed as “stationary orbit.”
• Every circular orbit will have a certain amount of
fixed energy and these circular orbits were termed
orbital shells.
• The electrons will not radiate energy as long as they
continue to revolve around the nucleus in the fixed
orbital shells.
• The different energy levels are denoted by
integers such as n=1 or n=2 or n=3 and so on.
• These are called as quantum numbers. T
• he range of quantum number may vary and
begin from the lowest energy level (nucleus
side n=1) to highest energy level.
• The different energy levels or orbits are
represented in two ways such as 1, 2, 3, 4… or
K, L, M, N….. shells.
• The lowest energy level of the electron is
called the ground state
• The change in energy occurs when the
electrons jump from one energy level to other.
• In an atom, the electrons move from lower to
higher energy level by acquiring the required
energy.
• However, when an electron loses energy it
moves from higher to lower energy level.
• 1st orbit (energy level) is represented as K shell
and it can hold up to 2 electrons.
• 2nd orbit (energy level) is represented as L shell
and it can hold up to 8 electrons.
• 3rd orbit (energy level) is represented as M
shell and it can contain up to 18 electrons.
• 4th orbit (energy level) is represented as N
Shell and it can contain maximum 32
electrons.
 Distribution of Electrons in Orbits or Shells

• Electronic distribution of various orbits or

energy levels can be calculated by the formula
2n2. Here, ‘n’ denotes the number of orbits.
• The number of electrons in K shell (1st orbit)
can be calculated by 2n2= 2 x 12 = 2. Thus,
maximum number of electrons in 1st orbit = 2
• Similarly, The number of electrons in L shell
(2nd orbit)= 2 x 22 = 8. Thus, maximum
number of electrons in 2nd orbit = 8
 Limitations of Bohr’s Model of an Atom

• Bohr atomic model had few limitations. They

are:
• Failure to explain Zeeman Effect (how atomic
spectra are affected by magnetic fields).
• It contradicts Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle.
• Unable to explain how to determine the
spectra of larger atoms.
 Atomic Number
- number of protons in the atom of that element also equals the
number of electrons
- elements are classified by this number
- continues up to 119
- unique to a given element
- all atoms are electrically neutral, meaning the number of
electrons must equal the number of protons
-this arrangement of elements by their atomic numbers makes
up the periodic table
-Usually located at the upper left hand corner
 Mass number
• The mass of the atom is due to protons and neutrons.
• They are collectively known as nucleons.
• Mass number (A) of the atom is the total number of nucleons
or the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom
• Mass number (A) = the number of protons (Z) + the number of
neutrons (n)
• Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number
• usually found at the bottom of the atomic symbol, and
sometimes found written at the bottom left of an atomic
symbol
• ex. 16O
 Symbolic Representation of an Element
• The atomic number is the subscript.
•
Charge of
The mass number is the superscript particle
Mass
number
A C
Z X
Atomic Symbol of
number the element
• Atomic number (Z) - the number of protons in the atom
• Mass number (A) - sum of the number of protons and
neutrons
For each element listed in the table below, the number of
protons equals the number of electrons.

Atoms of the First Ten Elements

Name Symbol Atomic Protons Neutrons Mass Electrons
number number
Hydrogen H 1 1 0 1 1
Helium He 2 2 2 4 2
Lithium Li 3 3 4 7 3
Beryllium Be 4 4 5 9 4
Boron B 5 5 6 11 5
Carbon C 6 6 6 12 6
Nitrogen N 7 7 7 14 7
Oxygen O 8 8 8 16 8
Fluorine F 9 9 10 19 9
Neon Ne 10 10 10 20 10
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 Atomic Calculations
number of protons = number of electrons

number of protons + number of neutrons = mass number

number of neutrons = mass number - number of protons

 Question
• Calculate the number of protons, neutrons,
and electrons in 5626Fe.
• Solution: In 5626Fe, atomic number (Z) = 26,
mass number (A) = 56.
• Number of protons = number of electrons = Z
= 26.
• Number of neutrons = A – Z = 56 – 26 = 30.
 calculate the numbers of protons, electrons, and
neutrons.

Beryllium (Be) Neon (Ne) Sodium (Na)

atomic number = 4 atomic number = 10 atomic number = 11
mass number = 9 mass number = 20 mass number = 23
atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons
a. 4 b. 10 c. 11

number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number

a. number of neutrons = 9 – 4 = 5
b. number of neutrons = 20 – 10 = 10
c. number of neutrons = 23 – 11 = 12
 Classifications of nuclides
• Nuclides are classified into the following categories:

– Isotopes

– Isobars

– Isotones

– Isomers

– Isodiapheres
 Isotopes

– Elements having same atomic

number but different mass numberprotons ( H)
1
protium (11H).
(2H) deuterium
– Same number of protons (3H) tritium

– Different number of neutrons (2H) deuterium

– Isotopes are chemically same and physically different
– Frederick Soddy proposed the idea of isotopes in
1912
– Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1921
 Isobars

– Atoms of different elements having the same

mass number but different atomic number
– Same number of nucleons
– Different number of protons
– Isobars are chemically different but physically
same

 Fe58, 27Ni58
26
 Isotones

– Elements having same number of neutrons but

different number of protons

Isotones Z A Electrons Protons Neutrons

17 Cl37 17 37 17 17 20 (37-17)

K39 19
19  Both have 2039neutrons19in their nuclei
19 20 (39-19)
 Isomers

– Nuclides having same number of protons as well

as neutrons but differ in their nuclear energy
states
– Nuclides having same mass number and atomic
number but differ in their energy states

 43Tc 99m
& 43Tc 99
 Isodiapheres

– Elements having different Z and A but the

difference between the number of neutrons and
number of protons are same

Isotones Z A N=A-Z N-Z

90 Th234 90 234 144 (234 - 90) 54 (144 - 90)

92 U238 92 238 146 (238 - 92) 54 (146- 92)

 Summary…

• ISOTOPES have the same number of PROTONS.

• ISOTONES have the same number of NEUTRONS.

• ISOBARS have the same mass number A.

• ISOMERS are different ENERGY states of the same atom.

 Questions
I. Define the following (3 x 1 = 3)
• 1. Atom
• 2. Molecule
• 3. Compounds
II. Explain with example (4 x 3 =12)
• A. Isotope
• B. Isobar
• C. Isotone
• D. Isodiaspheres
III. Answer in detail (1 x 10 = 10)
• Describe all the postulates of atomic model starting from Dalton to
Bohr’s atomic model. Give their limitations