Airframe Theory

For Aircraft power plant and mechanical

systems Students
50 hours course

By: Tsegaye A. (Cap.)

 Contents

 Introduction
 Classification of aircrafts
 Aircraft Structures
 Wing
 Fuselage
Tail Unit /Empennage
 Aircraft Control Surfaces
 Landing gear, Shock absorber, wheel brakes
 Emergency Exit System of fighter aircraft
 INTRODUCTION

Definitions
Aircraft
Any structure, flying machine or set-up designed to be
supported in the air either by dynamic reaction with the
air or by it’s own buoyancy.
E.g. Aero planes, airships, gliders, balloons, gliders …

Aircraft Structure
… each physical components of the aircraft that
makes the aircraft fly….
 Some points on History of Aircraft
Construction

Early dreamers
– Greek myth – Daedalus with his son Icarus, flew
with wings made of feathers and wax.
– Leonardo Da Vinci made suggestive drawings of
the orinthopter, a parachute and a helicopter
around 1500 AD.
 Lighter than Air
• Supported in the air by their own buoyancy
A.Balloons: - non-porous spherical bags filled
with light air
- Gas filled
- Hot Air
B. Airships (dirigibles):- are engine driven and
can be Steered.
 Heavier than Air

Supported in the air by the dynamic reaction

of the aircraft structure with the air

example: Gliders
Otto Lilienthal
made about 2000 successful flights with gliders
made of willow wands and waxed cotton in the
1890’s
• The early flying machines (aircrafts) produced
by the Wright brothers, and others had wings
made of bent wooden ribs covered with fabric
and a body of open framework made of strips
of bamboo held together with piano wire.
 Classification of aircraft

Aircrafts can be classified Based on many criteria.

i) Based on weight:
• Lighter than air (Aerostat)
e.g. Balloons
• Heavier than air (Aerodyne)
ii) Based on flight principles :

1. Rotary wing aircraft

2. Fixed wing aircraft
1. Rotary wing aircraft (helicopters)
They are:
• VTOL
• Lift & thrust forces are produced by the
rotary wing …
2. Fixed wing aircraft
– Have pairs of fixed wings to generate lift force
– Forward movement of the wing through the
air, generates lift due to dynamic action of

the air…
E.g.. Airplane, glider
Fixed wing aircrafts may further be
classified as
Based on number of wings:
• Monoplane- has a single pair of fixed wings
• Biplane – has two pairs of wings
Based on operating surfaces:
• Land planes _ designed to operate from the
surface of land.
• Sea plane – lands on water surface
• Amphibian - can land both on water surface
and on land.
iii) Based designed purpose:
1. Civilian aircraft
– General purpose aircraft – for transportation of passengers
and cargo of passengers
– Passenger planes
– Cargo planes
– Trainer planes
– Crop dusters
– Etc.
2. Military aircrafts
– General purpose aircraft – for transportation of passengers, cargos
and bombing
– Trainer aircraft
– Bomber aircraft
– Rescue & Drone aircrafts
– Fighter aircraft
– Interceptor fighter
– Escort fighter
– All weather fighter
– Etc.
Principal structural components of fixed wing
aircraft

The main Structural Components of

fixed wing aircraft are:
• The fuselage
• The wing
• The landing gear
• The Empennage and
• Flight control Surfaces
• The structural components of an aircraft are
an assembly of structural members.
• The structural members are designed to
carry loads or resist stress

Stress:
Is the internal force of a material to
resist stress
Basic Stresses on aircraft structure

• Tension stress
• Compression stress
• shear stress
• Bending stress
• Torsion stress
1. Primary stresses

Tension - is the stress that resists a force that

tends to pull a material apart
- or loads acting in opposite direction on
a structure
Compression – is the stress that resists a crushing
force
Shear - is a stress that resists the force tending to slide
one layer of material over an adjacent layer
2. Combination stresses

Bending – is the stress that resists bending load

- or it is a combination of tension and
compression
Torsion- is a stress that produces twisting
- or is resistance stress for tending to
rotate one layer of structural
component abut the longitudinal axis
 Fuselage of An aircraft

1.1 Definition:
The fuselage is the longitudinal body of the
aircraft to which the wings, tail, and landing
gear etc are going to be attached; and
provides space for crew, passengers, cargos,
controls, engine and other items depending
on the design (size and purpose) of the a/c.
 Requirements to be met by fuselage

• Must be strong and light in weight

• Must be streamlined
• Must be air conditioned or ventilated
• Must be pressurized if the aircraft flies at high
altitudes must be provided with emergency exit
• Maximum use of internal volumes of the
aircraft
• Should offer the minimum possible drag while
flying
1.2 Types of fuselage constructions

Three general types of fuselage constructions

are:
1) Truss
2) Monocoque (full Monocoque)
3) Semi- Monocoque
1) Truss type of fuselage

Is a rigid frame work of bars, beams, rods, tubes

and wires. The members are joined together
by riveting or welding
There are four horizontal basic structures (called
longerons)

There are two types of truss construction

– Pratt truss
– Warren tress
a) Pratt truss
• Vertical and diagonal members connect the
horizontal members (longerons)
• The diagonal members can be wires (carry only
tension) or rigid tubing (can carry both tension
and compression)
• Longitudinal longerons are the primary load
carrying members
• Lateral bracing is placed at regular intervals.
The frame work is covered with fabric, wood,
aluminum or fiberglass
• Generally it is an old approach
b) Warren truss

• The longerons are connected only

with diagonal members
• Materials could be steel and
aluminum alloy etc
2) Full Monocoque

• Is a metal tube or cone without internal

structural members
• Formers (lateral structural members) can be
used to give shape
• Relies on the strength of the skin to carry
In stresses stressed skin Construction
– All the loads are carried in the outside skin
– Can be built in a clean, smooth and efficient
aerodynamic shape
3) Semi-Monocoque

• Has additional longitudinal members

(Longerons and stringers) to reinforce the
skin in addition to the lateral members
(frames, formers and bulk heads)
• The skin is riveted to stringers which in turn
are riveted to the formers
• Now a days modern aviation is using this
type of fuselage construction
1.3 principal fuselage Structural components

I ) Longitudinal Members
 Stringers
 Longerons

II) Vertical members

 Frames or formers
 Bulkheads

III) Skin (plating)- aluminum alloy, titanium, and

stainless steel
I) Lengthwise members
Stringers
 Numerous in number and smaller in size than
longerons
 Run from the nose of the aircraft to the tail of
the aircraft
 Provide space for fastening the skin
• Material
– Aluminum alloy
 Types
• Extruded
• Cast
• Formed
 Cross Sectional Shapes-
– L- angles, Bulb angle, Hat Section, U- channel, Z-Section
Longerons

– are also length wise members

– Heavier than stringers
– Carry primary bending loads
– Similar to Stringers in shape and construction
II) Vertical Members

Bulkheads
– are the heaviest vertical members
– Carry concentrated loads

Formers /frmes
– Give shape to the fuselage
– Transfer stresses from the fuselage to the
bulkheads
III) Skin (plating)
• It creates the external framework
(streamlined) of the fuselage
• Its primary function is to resist the
distributed aerodynamic load
• The load will be transferred to stringers and
formers
• Its stability is increased by increasing its
thickness or by reinforcing it with the above
structural members
• It can be made from aluminum, fiberglass
and other composite materials
 Wing of An aircraft
Definition
The wing is part of the aircraft which is designed
to produce primarily lift force; besides it
ensures lateral stability and controllability.
Purpose
 Produces lift
 Provides attachment points for the landing
gear, engines, fuel tanks and the ailerons
 etc
 Requirements to be met by the wing

• It should offer the minimum possible drag

• Should produce the maximum possible lift
• The product of Cl max and S should be higher
to give max lift force
• Should offer the maximum possible
aerodynamic cleanness
• Etc.
Design of wing
• Depends on the intended use, size, weight,
rate of climb, purpose and speed of the
aircraft.
• Location – is usually attached to the fuselage
• The external part of the wing structure
carries aerodynamic load by the skin
• The internal structure is made up of spars
and stringers (span wise members) and ribs
running chord wise (leading edge to trailing
edge)
 Types of wing construction
1. Based on number of spars
• Mono spar
• Two spar
• Multi spar
2. Based on shape of the wing
• Tapered leading and tailing edge
• Tapered leading edge and straight tailing edge
• Straight leading edge and tapered tailing edge
• Straight leading and trailing edge
• Delta wing
• Swept back wing
• Dihedral wing
• Gull wing
• Inverted gull
NB: The last five types of wings have certain
desirable flight characteristics such as greater
lift, balance or stability and weight reduction.
3.Based on how they are supported
– Cantilever wing
doesn’t need external support
– Semi cantilever wing
needs external support
4. Based on location of the wing
• High wing monoplane –
has the wing located at or near the top of the fuselage
• Mid wing monoplane _
the wing is placed approximately mid way between the top
and bottom of the fuselage
• Low wing monoplane
• A parasol wing mono plane
 5. Based on how stresses are transmitted
Truss type
Stressed skin type

a) Truss type
• The spars are separated by compression members
• The truss is held together with high strength steel
wires
• The compression members carry the compressive
stresses, while the drag and anti-drag wires carry
the tensile forces.
• The structure carries the entire load.
• The skin is usually not a stress- carrying member.
 Cont…
• Drag wires (run from rear spar outboard to front spar
inboard)
• Anti-drag wires (run from rear spar inboard to front spar
outboard)
• The skin on the top surface of the wing has to be stiffer
than the lower side. The upper surface is exposed to
compressive stress, while the lower side is subjected to
tensile stress.
• Ribs are attached to the spars to give shape

• The structure is covered with fabric skin

Stressed skin

– In this approach the skin plays the primary role in

taking up loads
– A metal skin is riveted to stringers and ribs
– The stringers are also riveted to the skin and the
ribs
– The ribs transfer the stresses to the spars
– A metal skin is riveted to stringers and ribs
 Sandwich (bonded honeycomb)
Sandwiched structural design of wing is made by
sandwiching different materials together in a
mold – pattern approach .
It is common in helicopter blade construction and
for low speed aircrafts
It can be made from:
• Metal bonded honeycomb
• Fiber glass
• composite
 Structural members of the wing
I. Span wise members
1. Spar
T Main structural member of the wing
• Longitudinal (span wise) members of the wing
• Can be made of wood or cast metal
• Types of spars
• Solid wood
• Laminated wood
• Extruded metal
• Built up metal

• Spar shapes
• Box Beam
• I beam
• Trapezoidal
• etc
Parts of the spar
-Spar cap strip
-Spar web
2. Stringers
• are also longitudinal (span wise members)
members of the wing
• Are designed to resist bending loads i.e. assist
spars
 Chord wise members
Ribs
• are chord wise members
• Extend from the leading edge to the trailing
edge or from front spar to the rear spar
• Give shape to the wing
• Transmit loads from the covering to the spars
• Can be made of wood or metal
• Ribs can be made from
• wood or metal
• Either wood or metal ribs can be
used with wooden spars
• But metal ribs are used with
metal spars
 False ribs
• Extend from the front spar to the leading
edge
• Give streamlined shape to the leading edge
• Transfer stresses to the front spar
• Generally they are committed to give shape
(stream lined appearance) and additional
stiffness to the wing.
 Skin

• carries primary aerodynamic loads

• The top and bottom of wing covers are
made up of several integrally stiffened
sections. This type of wing construction
permits the installation of bladder- type fuel
cells in the wings
• Or is sealed to hold fuel without the usual
fuel cells or tanks
I. Discuss the following parameters of wing

1. wing chord (b)

2. Wing area (S)
3. Wing span (L)
4. Aspect ratio ()
5. wing taper ratio (η)
6. angle of sweep-back (χ)
II. List and Explain the Loads acting on a
wing in flight
 TAIL UNIT OF AN AIRCRAFT
(The empennage/ tail assembly)
Definition:
The empennage of an aircraft is the tail section , which
is designed to give stability in flight (and during taxing)
as well as to provide the platforms for fixing control
surfaces.
Or the tail unit is intended to ensure equilibrium, stability and
controllability of the aircraft .
The tail unit consists of :

• Fixed surfaces

• Movable surfaces

• Tail cone and

• Dorsal fin
Requirements to be met by the tail unit
– It should be efficient at all possible conditions of flight
– It should properly and efficiently combine
- Longitudinal
- Directional
- Lateral stability and
- Controllability
of the aircraft.
*More over, It should be free from vibration
 I. Fixed Surfaces
(The stabilizers)
• Horizontal stabilizer
• Vertical stabilizer
This fixed surfaces are attached to the aft
section of the fuselage; and they dedicated to
give horizontal and vertical stability of the
aircraft during:
- flight and
- ground operations of the a/c.
 Horizontal stabilizer
Purpose:
• provides longitudinal stability and controlablity
• Provides attachment point for the elevator
Construction:
Similar to the wing
• Truss
• Stressed skin
• Bonded honey comb
 Vertical Stabilizer
Purpose:
• provides directional stability and controllability
• Provides attachment point for the rudder
Construction:
– similar to the horizontal stabilizer
• Truss
• Stressed skin
• Bonded honey comb
Location:
Usually attached at the rear section of the fuselage.

NB: The structural members are Spare, stringers,

ribs and skin (for both vertical and horizontal stabilizers)
 II. Movable surfaces
Rudder (s)
Elevator (s)
They are primary control surfaces and are used for
directional and lateral stability of the aircraft.
Rudder (s)
- Is a control surface that controls the aircraft movement about its
vertical axis.

- Are attached to the rear spar of the vertical stabilizer

Elevator (s)
. Are control surfaces which govern pitching of
the aircraft about the lateral axis.
. Are attached to the rear spar of the horizontal stabilizer
NB:- For both surfaces:
- The structural members are Spars, stringers, ribs and skin
- Their construction is very much the same as the wing
construction
Dorsal fin
Is fixed structure in front of the vertical
stabilizer; and is used for vertical stability.

Tail cone
It is the aft section of the fuselage used as an
outlet for the exhaust gas.
Note:
Stress in an empennage is carried like
stress in a wing by the load carrying
Members(spars, stringers, ribs and skin).
 Flight Control surfaces
Flight control systems include cockpit control,
control linkages, hydraulic systems, control valves
and actuators and control surfaces.
Control Surfaces
Are hinged or moveable surfaces used to control
generally the attitude of the aircraft.
Their construction is very much the same as the wing
but in small scale.

They can be constructed from wood structure sheet

metal (usually aluminum), play wood, fabric metal
etc.
Classification of control surfaces
I. Primary control surfaces
Ailerons
Elevators
Rudder (s)

II. Secondary control surfaces

Generally they assist the pilot work load offered by the air pressure
Trim tabs
Servo tabs
Balanced tabs
Spring tabs ….
III. Combined control surfaces
. Are combination of any of primary and secondary control surfaces
. The need to combine them is to reduce weight and ease
controllability, they can be
Stablator
Ruddervator
Elevon …
IV. Auxiliary control surfaces
Flaps
Split flap, Fouler flap, Slotted flap….
Spoilers
Speed brakes
Slots/Slats…
 I. Primary control surfaces
1. The Elevator
Purpose
• provides longitudinal control (pitch control)

Construction
• Fabric covered truss
• Stressed Skin
• Bonded honeycomb
 Can be actuated mechanically by control cables, electrically or
hydraulically

 Operation – is operated by moving the control stick/yoke or column

forward or backward
– Moving the control stick/yoke (column) forward,
deflects the trailing edge of the elevator
downwards, which moves the nose of the aircraft
downwards.
– The opposite holds true when the control stick is
moved backwards.
2. The aileron
Purpose:
provides lateral control (rolling control)
Location:
usually mounted on the trailing edge of the wing
Construction
• Fabric covered truss
• Stressed skin
Bonded honey comb
Operation :
Operated by moving the control stick or wheel to the
right or to the left
• Moving the control yoke to the left deflects the trailing edge
of the left aileron up and the trailing edge of the right aileron
down, decreasing the lift on the left wing and banking the
aircraft to the left
• The opposite holds true when the wheel is moved to
the right
 3. The rudder
Purpose:
provide directional control (yaw control)
Location:
usually mounted on the trailing edge of
the Vertical stabilizer

Construction:
– Fabric covered truss
– Stressed skin
– Bonded honeycomb
Operation:
operated by pushing rudder pedals in
the cockpit
Pushing the right pedal deflects the trailing
edge of the rudder to the right turning the
nose of the aircraft to the right.
 Note:
• Control surfaces can be actuated mechanically by
control cables , electrically or hydraulically.
 II. Combined control surface
Ruddervators :
Functions as a rudder and elevator
Elevon:
Serves the functions of the elevator and aileron
Flaperon:
Functions as a flap and aileron
Stabilator:
A hinged moveable horizontal
stabilizer which can be used for pith
control
III. Secondary control surfaces
Tabs
Function:
– provides a means of trimming the aircraft
– Assists the pilot to move the main control surface
Location:
– hinged at the trailing edge of the main(primary)
control surfaces

Construction:
• Corrugated skin
• Bonded honeycomb
• Stressed skin
Types of flaps
Trim tabs
Servo tabs
Balance tabs
Spring tabs
Trim tabs:
• Are used for trimming attitude of an a/c
• They could be fixed or adjustable
• When they are operated by the cockpit control stick, they
deflect in opposite direction to the deflection of the primary
control surfaces so that it assists the pilot workload.
Servo tabs:
Assist the pilot to move the main control surface
Operation:
• are operated by the cockpit control stick
• are deflected to a direction that is opposite to the
direction of movement of the main control surface
• Aerodynamic forces act on the tab to move the main
control surface
Balance tabs
– aid the pilot to move the main control surface
– Are deflected in the opposite direction when the main
control surface is deflected and assist the pilot
workload.

Spring tabs
 provide control assistance at high speed
 The working principle is the same as the above tabs
IV. Auxiliary control surfaces

1.Trailing edge flaps

2.Leading edge flaps
3.Leading edge slats
4.Spoilers …
 Trailing edge flaps
Purpose:
increase wing camber and area to
• Increase lift
• Increase drag
• Reduce airspeed for landing
• Shorten the landing roll
• Shorten the takeoff run
Types of flaps
Plain flap
Fowler flap
Split flap
Segmented flap
Construction
Fabric covered truss
Stressed skin
Bonded honeycomb
Location
_ usually hinged or mounted on

the trailing edge of the wings

.Can be actuated mechanically, hydraulically
or electrically
 Spoilers and Speed Brakes
Purpose:
– to reduce lift
– to increase drag
– to aid the aileron in lateral control
– to reduce speed of the aircraft during decent and
after landing
Location:
hinged at the upper surface of the wings
Construction:
• Stressed Skin
• Bonded honeycomb
• Some aircrafts have speed brakes mounted on the fuselage
Leading edge flaps
Purpose:
• increase the camber of the wing and provide greater lift at
lower airspeeds
Location:
• usually hinged on the leading edge
• normally flush with the lower surface of the wing

Can be actuated mechanically, electrically or

Hydraulically.
Leading Edge Slats
Purpose:
– Reduce the stalling speed by delaying turbulence to the trailing
edge and increase lift at lower airspeeds
Location:
– mounted on the leading edge of the wing
Construction:
– similar to trailing edge flaps
Operation:
– normally flush with the wing leading edge
– When extended move forward and open a slot to allow air
flow and prevent stalling
– Some aircraft have fixed slots
 The Landing Gear
(Under Carriage)
• Purpose:
– Supports the aircraft during ground operations
– Dampens vibrations while towing, mooring and
taxing
– Mitigate the landing impact during landing
Location:
 Is attached to the fuselage or the wing
 Can be fixed or retractable
 Extending and retracting systems can be:
• Mechanical
• Electrical
• Hydraulic
Requirements to be met by the landing gear

• Absorption of shocks at landing and during taxing

• Efficient braking at landing in order to spoil most of the
kinetic energy
• Sufficient stability and controllability (maneuverability)
• Retractably in flight
Landing gear arrangement/Pattern
 Landing gear pattern refers to the placement of carriers on
the aircraft body.

There are three arrangements of landing gear:

1. Three point landing gear with tail leg

2. Three point landing gear with front leg
3. Two point (Bi-cycle) landing gear with supports
1. Three point landing gear with tail leg

It is conventional type of landing gear, the main load is

applied on the two main legs.
Consists of:
– Two main wheels ( forward of the C.G) and one tail leg/wheel
– Seldom used on modern aircraft
Advantages:
• Provides good propeller-ground clearance
• Advantageous if aircraft operates on rough field
Disadvantages:
• Restricted visibility
• Nosing over during enthusiastic braking
• Possibility of damaging the landing strip by the exhaust
2. Three point landing gear with front leg

• Two main wheels (aft of the C.G) and a nose wheel and
the main load is applied on the two main legs
• Widely used on modern airplanes
• Advantages:
– Allows more forceful application of the brakes
with out nosing over
– Offers better visibility
– There is a problem of tail over
– Tends to prevent ground looping (no problem of
damaging the landing strip )
3. Bicycle(two point) landing gear

 The entire load of the aircraft is taken by the two legs

placed on the fuselage
 Two smaller wheels are placed beneath the wing for
stability purpose
Advantage:
• Used for thin swept wing aircraft when it is difficult to
accommodate the main landing gear in wing gear
Disadvantage:
• Problem of stability during ground operation
 Types of landing gear
1. Fixed (Non-retractable) landing gear
- These are generally attached to the structural
members of the air plane with bolts.
- But it is not actually ‘fixed’ because it must absorb
stresses hence it must move up and down while
landing and taxing
- Used for low speed aircraft
- It is equipped with a fairing where it joins the
fuselage or wing to reduce drag
- It may be cantilever or semi cantilever
2. Retractable landing gear
- The landing gear is used only during takeoff,
landing and ground operation; otherwise it will
retract to either to the fuselage or to the wing.
- It is designed to reduce drag; hence it is used in
high speed aircraft.
- Retraction may be towards the fuselage (inward)
from the wing or outward from the fuselage to
the wing against on the other hand;
- The other retraction is either in the direction of
airflow or against the airflow when the landing
gear is placed on the fuselage
 Landing gear retraction systems

 The purpose of landing gear retraction is to lower the drag force

during flight and/or to adapt the aircraft for landing on different
surfaces.
 Various systems have been designed to retract the gear
i) Mechanical retraction system
• It is powered by the pilot by moving the control lever.
• The pilot’s force is transmitted through the control linkages/cables to
retract/extend the gear
• Mostly found in some older aircrafts, and in modern light aircraft.
ii) Electrical retraction system

• The electrical energy is used to actuate the landing gear actuators for retraction and
extension
• This system is used on light aircrafts where the weight of the landing gear is light
iii) Mechanical retraction system
• Uses hydraulic pressure to actuate the gear
• it is used in heavy aircrafts since in this system pressure is so powerful, ; hence the
pilot only deflect the control levers so that the pressure force will actuate the
landing gear.
• The system uses reversible electric motor(pump) to generate the hydraulic pressure.
 Retraction systems
• The purpose of retractable landing gear is
– to reduce drag.
– To adapt the aircraft for landing on different
surfaces.
• Landing gear retraction systems can be
– Mechanical
– Hydraulic or
– electrical
 Mechanical systems
• Is used
– On older aircraft or
– On light aircraft for emergency extension
• Is powered by the pilot moving a lever or
operating a crank mechanism.
Electrical retraction system
 system devices
• Actuating cylinders
• Selector valves
• Up-locks
• Down-locks
• Sequence valves
• Tubing
• Other components
– Are interconnected to permit the proper sequenced retraction and
extension of the landing gear and the landing gear doors.
 Emergency extension system
• Lowers the landing gears if the main power
system fails.
• Some aircraft have an emergency release
handle in the cockpit, which is connected
through a mechanical linkage to the gear up
lock.
• It releases the up lock allowing the gears to
free fall or extend under their own weight
when operated.
 Landing gear safety devices
• Accidental retraction of a landing gear may be
prevented by
– Mechanical down locks
– Safety switches
– Ground locks
 Landing gear Shock absorber

• When an aircraft touches the ground during landing, it has

two components of velocity (Vy and Vx).

• The horizontal component of landing velocity is damped

(controlled) by the brakes in the wheel

• The vertical component is damped by the shock absorbers.

Thus, Shock absorbers are used to cushion the landing impact
during landing and dampen Vibrations, which may cause nose
part of the aircraft damage.
 Requirements to be met by shock absorber of an
aircraft
An aircraft shock absorber should meet the following requirements:
• Take up the landing impact energy
• Should resist high temperature
• Dissipate the impact energy by converting in to heat.
• Resistant to environmental weather changes
Depending up on the type of working medium there are
four types of shock absorbers:
 Liquid – gas ****
 Liquid
 Liquid - Spring
 Rubber - Spring
 Construction and operation of Liquid – gas shock
absorber
- Liquid – gas sock absorber is used for both retractable and non
retractable landing gears
- The working medium is usually hydraulic fluid and commercial
nitrogen.
- The liquid serves its viscosity with in a wide rang of temperature,
but it is explosive; hazard at high pressures and temperature
occurring in the shock absorber during compression.

- There fore, the shock absorbers with these fluids are charged with
an inert gas – nitrogen rather than free air.
Interior of liquid – gas shock absorber /olio strut/
 Interior of liquid – gas shock absorber /olio strut/

• During touch down, a/c touches the ground on to its landing gear
with initially downward velocity component (Vy).
• When the a/c touches the ground, the vertical ground force pushes
the piston in to the cylinder of the olio strut which forces the oil
through a small orifice in to the upper chamber, there by further
compressing the already high pressure gas above the oil.
• The metering effect of the small orifice offers a resistance for flow
of the oil to the upper chamber.
 The increase of pressure in the upper chamber will push
the oil in the opposite direction; in the downward flow, the
orifice will also offer a metering (resistance) effect. In this
way the kinetic energy (due to Vy) or the landing impact will
be converted in to heat energy.
OR
 When the wheel impacts the ground, the rod (piston) moves
upward(direct stroke) compressing the gas (nitrogen) in the
upper chamber owing to decrease of its volume . Work spent
to compress the gas is accumulated and consumed to return
the shock absorber(reverse stroke) to the initial position.

 The heat energy will be dissipated in to the atmosphere ;

 The aircraft will be settled and comes to rest.
 Steering system/Mechanism
Steering system is used to control the direction of
movement of an aircraft while taxing.
Most aircrafts are designed with some kind of
steering mechanism; some of them are:
Mechanical steering system – the pilot can press on the rudder
pedal and cause the nose wheel or tail wheel to turn without any form
of power assistance.
- used in small aircrafts
Power steering system – it is used heavy aircrafts
where the steering is assisted by some form of
power(e g. hydraulic) in addition to rudder pedal
direction control
 Power steering systems
• Are used for aircraft which require large
amounts of force to be applied to the nose
wheel to achieve efficient steering control.
• Power steering systems can be controlled by:-
– Rudder pedals
– A steering wheel
– By a combination system
• Allowing full directional control with steering wheel and
• Small degree of control with the pedals.
 Cont…..
• Operation of either of the controls causes hydraulic
pressure to move an actuator on the nose wheel
and changes the direction of movement.

• A follow up system is used to provide only as much

nose wheel deflection as the pilot requires based on
the amount the pedal or the steering wheel is
deflected.

• A compensator unit in the system keeps fluid in the

steering cylinder pressurized at all times.

• A safety valve allows the wheels to trail or swivel in

the event of hydraulic failure.
 System components
• Each steering system usually contains
– A cockpit control.
– Mechanical or hydraulic connection.
– A control unit usually a metering valve.
– A source of power usually system hydraulic
pressure.
– Tubing
– Steering cylinders
– A pressurizing assembly usually a compensator
– to keep the cylinders pressurized.
– A follow up mechanism
• To return the metering valve to the off position
– Safety valves
 System operation
• The steering wheel connects through a shaft to a steering
drum.
• The rotation of the drum is transmitted to the control drum
of the differential assembly.
• Movement of the differential assembly is transmitted by the
differential link to the metering valve assembly.
• This moves the selector valve to the selected direction.
• System hydraulic pressure is routed through the selector
valve to one of the steering cylinders.
• Actuation of the cylinders turns the spindle which pivots at a
point.
– The spindle is attached to the strut.
• This turns the nose wheel to the desired direction.
 Steering control valve and
compensator
• The valve routes system pressure to one of
the actuators while at the same time
connecting the opposite to the return.
• The compensator opens to allow fluid into
system return when pressure is developed.
 Steering
control valve
 Aircraft wheels

The a/c wheel consists of

i.Drum
ii.Tire and
iii.Brake

i. The wheel drum

 It is a cast of aluminum, magnesium or titanium alloy.
 The drum has fixed and removable rims.
 The removable rim is used to facilitate installation of the tire on
to the drum.
ii. The wheel tire
The a/c wheel tire comprises of tire 8 and tube 11. Tubeless types are also
used.
Commonly the tire consists of:
• Cord 10 made of six to ten fabric plies of Capron cords (acetate fibers)
and it is the main load carrying portion of the tire.
• Bead metal (wire) cables 13 to take up the major part of the load caused
by internal pressure and inertia forces.
•A layer of rubber Arranged at the top of the cord is called
protector 9, which protects the cords against elements, abrasion
and mechanical damages out of the tire is tolerable up to
complete abrasion of the protector; the tire tensile strength does
not change in this case.
•To check permissible wear limits, most of the tires have check
recesses.
•If one or more of the recesses disappear as a result of tire wear,
the tire should be discarded (replaced).
•Tube 11 is made of special cold- resistant rubber. It has
inflation valve 12 with a slide. If the tire turns relative to the
wheel drum at braking, the valve can be cut off. Turning of
the tire is prevented by friction between the base of the tire
sidewalls and rims of the drum.
•To check absence of turning of the tire relative to the drum,
check marks (balance marks) are applied to the tire and the
rim of the wheels. The mark is in the form of red dot.
9-protector;
10-cord;
11-inner tube;
12-valve with slide;
13-metal bead cables
iii. Wheel brakes
The modern aircraft features the Considerable kinetic energy at landing.
The wheel brakes are used to
• dissipate the major part of this energy and convert it in to heat which provides
for considerable decrease of the landing runway of the aircraft,
• improve maneuverability of the aircraft at taxiing, and
• ensure trial runs of the engines before take-off by preventing the movement of
the aircraft.
Requirements to be met by wheel brakes

The aircraft wheel brakes should meet the following requirements:

• Creation of the maximum braking moment ensuring
complete braking of the wheel at the stop.
•Smoothness of braking, i.e. gradual increase of the
friction force.
•Possibility of fast braking and releasing of brakes.
•Ensure the required energy capacity.
 Types of wheel brakes

1.The shoe brake

2.The expander tube brake
3.Disc brake

Assignment: Read on the three types of brakes;

which type of wheel brake is most
commonly used and efficient ???
 Skis
• Skis are landing structural members used for aircrafts
which take off and land on snow or ice surfaces.
 Float
• A completely enclosed water tight structure attached
to an aircraft to provide buoyancy and stability
while landing on water surfaces.
Fuselage hull
 Design Features for Safety
Fail-safe structure
A structure may be designed so as to be considered
‘fail safe’ i.e. if one member of a complex structure
fail, some other member would be assumed to
takeover (carry) the load of the failed structure.
Example:
If a spar is made in two sections; the top section
consists of a cap riveted to the upper web plate.
The lower section also consists of the lower cap
and web plate.
If either section of the spar breaks, the other
section can Still carry the load , which is the fail
safe feature.
• Safe Lived Structure

– Used for structures that couldn’t be designed to

be fail safe.
– Provides a discard limit to remove the part from
service before it fails, when it show a sign of
failure.
E.g. Landing gear axle is discarded
when it is showing a sign of failure
 Location numbering system
The location numbering system is used to facilitate
location of specific structural members like
– Wing frames , formers
– Fuselage formers , frames
– Tail unit structural members …
of the aircraft for easy identification and communication
during maintenance, servicing etc.
OR It is a system of locating structural components and
parts of the aircraft.
Location numbering systems

BODY STATION NUMBERS (FUSELAGE STATION- FS )

• Are distances measured from a reference datum on the

fuselage along the longitudinal axis parallel to the
centerline.
centerline

• The datum is mostly taken as location of nose of

fuselage.
Buttock Line-BL
Is a width measurement to the right or to the left of the
center line of the aircraft.
Conti…
Water Line (WL)
Is a height measurement perpendicular from a reference
datum plane located below the bottom of the fuselage.
 Zone numbers

• Different areas on the aircraft are identified by a

standard 3 digit zone numbering system
• The first digit identifies the major zone, the second
the sub zone and the third the zone.

Example:
Zone number 321
300-empennage
320-vertical stabilizer and rudder
321 – vertical leading edge
Major zone number area

100 Lower half of the fuselage

200 Upper half of the fuselage

300 empennage

400 Power plants and pylon

500 Left wing

600 Right wing

700 Landing gear and L/G doors

800 doors

900 reserved
Some Power plant
structure
 Nacelles or pod/shell/
 Are streamlined enclosures used to cover the
engines.
 They are round or spherical in shape and are usually
located above, below, or at the leading edge of the wing
on multi-engine aircraft.
 The engine structure consists of
 Skin
 Cowling
 Structural members
 The fire wall and
 Engine mounts.
Skin and cowling cover the outside of the nacelle, both are
usually made of sheet aluminum alloy, stainless steel,
magnesium, or titanium used to streamline the air flow
over the engine and protects the engine from damage.
The skin is attached to the frame work by rivets.
The frame work usually consists of structural members
similar to those of the fuselage.
A nacelle or pod/shell also contains a fire wall which
separates the engine compartment from the rest of the
aircraft.
The engine mount is usually attached to the fire wall; and
the engine is attached to the mount by nuts, bolts and
vibration-absorbing rubber mitigate or pads.
 The cowling
Is the removable covering of the engines found on areas,
which need regular access. It includes nose cowl, side wall…
 The engine mount
• Is the frame that supports the engine and
attaches it to the fuselage or the wing.
• Can be made from welded steel tubing or formed
sheet metal.
Tail cone
Serves to close and streamline the aft section of most
fuselages. It is made of structural embers like those of the
fuselage but lighter construction.
 Cockpits cabins and compartments
Cockpit
• portion of the airplane occupied by the pilot and
copilot
• All controls radiate from the cockpit
• Systems in cockpit enable the pilot to control the
speed, direction, attitude power and altitude of
the aircraft.
A cabin is a completely enclosed compartment having
structural members
 Requirements to be met by the cockpit
• Sufficient headroom, visibility ,clearance for
controls ,and space for the movement of the hands and
feet controls.
• Must be designed to provide adequate provision to
permit the egress of the crew in an event of complete
turn over.
• Arrangement must be in such a way that the minimum
flight crew will perform their duties with out un
reasonable concentration and fatigue.
• A door equipped with a lock must be provided between the
pilot compartment and the passenger compartment .
• Should be out of Propeller plane of rotation

• Should be leakage proof

• Vibration and noise protection

• Adequate ventilation and vision.

• No glare and reflection from windows and windshields.

• Sufficient window glass Impact strength

• Must withstand impact of bird at vc

Passenger compartment
Passenger Cabin Sidewall
Overhead Stowage Bins
 Types of Emergency exits
Type dimension location level

I >24” X 48” Side of aft fuselage Floor level

II >20” X 44” Aft fuselage Floor level

III >20” X 36” Over wing Step<20”

IV >19” X 26” Over wing Step<29”

ventral as type I Aft pressure shell

Tail cone Through tail cone
Type A >42” X 72” Floor level
 No of emergency exits required on each side of
the fuselage
No of Type I Type II Type III Type IV
passengers

1-9 1

10-19 1

20-39 1 1

40-79 1 1

80-109 1 2

110-139 2 1

139- 179 2 2
 Cargo compartment
• Used to fill/stack luggage
Should :
Withstand both internal and external stresses
Have fire detection & protection system
Prevent Movement of containers
Easy to load and unload cargoes
etc.
 ACCSESS AND INSPECTION DOORS
• Accesses doors permit normal or emergency
entrance into or exit from the aircraft.

• They provide access to servicing points and

manually operated drains.
• They can be hinged or movable.
• Movable accesses doors have a stenciled I'd
number that is identical to a stenciled near the
opening that they cover.
 Windshields and Window
• Transparent materials are used for windshields and
to cover parts requiring frequent visual
inspection( windows) .
• Used to protect the pilot and passengers from ram
air (adverse air)
• Transparent plastic sheet and laminated glass are
the materials most commonly used.
• There is rain elimination means called windshield
wiper (can be operated by electrical or hydraulic)
• There are also pneumatic and chemical rain
elimination systems
 Reading assignment
On
• Seats and belts /safety belts
• Function
• Materials of construction
• Doors and exits
• Function
• Installation
• Materials and construction add
• Requirements
• Aviation Maintenance Technician Handbook—Airframe
Volume 1 U.S. Department of Transportation FEDERAL
AVIATION ADMINISTRATION Flight Standards Service
2012