FUSELAGE, WINGS &

STABILISING SURFACES
LOADS APPLIED TO AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
TENSION
Its a load which tends to pull
things apart.
Components designed to resist tensile
loads are known as ties.

COMPRESSION
Its opposite of tensile

Ee
load.
Components designed to resist
compressive loads are known as
struts.

SHEAR
Shear is a force which tends to slide
one face of the material over an
adjacent face.

Components designed to resist shear forces are known as riveted joints.

COMBINATION LOADINGS
BENDING
Bending of the structure involves the three basic loadings:

• Tension as the outer edge stretches.

• Compression as the inner edge squeezes together.
• Shear across the structure as the forces try to split it.

I
Tensile
Shear
Compression
BUCKLING
Buckling occurs to thin sheet materials when they are subjected to end loads and
to ties if subjected to compressive forces.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BENDING AND BUCKLING

TORSION
Torsion or twisting forces produce tension
at the outer edge, compression in the
centre and shear across the structure.

TORSION

STRESS
Stress is the internal force per unit area inside a structural part as a result of
external loads.
Therefore a tensile load or force will set up a tensile stress, compression loads will
set up compressive stresses.
2

Stress is defined as the force per unit of area and is measured in units of N/mm
or MN/my
 STRAIN
Strain is defined as the deformation caused by the
action of stress on a material.

Strain = Change in length

-

Original length

YOUNG’S MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

-
Stress = constant
Strain

DESIGN LIMIT LOAD (DLL)

This is the maximum load that the designer would expect the airframe or component
to experience in service.
Its the load factor. Load factor = L
-

W
The standard DLLs are :-
• For transport category Aircraft = 2.5 and - 1.0
+

• For Utility Aircraft = 4.4

It
• For Aerobic Aircraft = 6

DESIGN ULTIMATE LOAD (DUL)

DUL = DLL × the safety factor
The minimum safety factor specified in design requirements is 1.5. The structure
must withstand DUL without collapse.

SAFETY FACTOR
The safety factor is the ratio of the ultimate load to the limit load.
SF = DUL
-

DLL
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
The aircraft manufacturer will attempt to design an aircraft to take into account
all the loads that it may experience in flight.

SAFE LIFE
The safe life of an aircraft structure is defined as the minimum life during
which it is known that no catastrophic damage should occur.
After the elapsed life-count or fatigue cycle (typically pressurisations or landings)
has been reached, the item is replaced or overhauled.

FAIL SAFE STRUCTURE

Its a structure in which a

y
'

failure of a particular part is

compensated for by an
alternative load-path provided
by an adjacent part that is able
to carry the loads for a limited
time period.
Typically this is a structure which,
after any single failure or crack in
any one structural member can
safely carry the normal operating
loads until the next periodic
inspection.

DAMAGE TOLERANT STRUCTURE

Fail-safe structures are rather heavy
due to the extra structural members
required to protect the integrity of
the structure.
Damage tolerant structure eliminates
the need for extra structural
members by spreading the loading of
a particular structure over a larger
area.
 FATIGUE

¥±☐
Fatigue is when a structure
experiences continual reversals of
loading and will fail at a load of less
than what would be the case for a
steadily applied load.

Reversal of loading - It happens

when a structural member is
subjected to tensile stress
followed by same level of
compressive stress. The stress is
repeated and reversed.

STATION NUMBER
Its a method of
locating components
on the aircraft for
maintenance and
repair work.

PRESSURISED AIRCRAFT
Structures must also be capable of supporting the axial and hoop stresses imposed by
the pressurization forces.

AXIAL STRESS
Axial or longitudinal stresses are
set up in the fuselage of aircraft
when pressurized and tend to
elongate the fuselage.
 HOOP STRESS
Hoop or radial stresses are set up in addition to axial stress and tend to expand
fuselage cross section area.

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
FUSELAGE
The fuselage is the main structure or
body of the aircraft and carries the
aircraft payload i.e. the passengers
and/or freight as well as the flight
crew and cabin staff in safe,
comfortable conditions.

FUSELAGE DESIGN
The fuselage can be built in a number of cross-sections. They all have advantages and
disadvantages.
RECTANGULAR
Many non-pressurized aircraft use this
shape due to cost constraints. They are
easier to construct but do have a high
weight to strength ratio.

CIRCULAR
This is an ideal shape for pressurized
aircraft as the hoop stresses are spread
evenly throughout the structure. It is
relatively easy build.
 OVAL (Concept)
An oval is less efficient than a
circular shape but is frequently
used to complete pressure hull
construction behind the rear
bulkhead.

DOUBLE BUBBLE (Concept)

These are similar to a figure eight.
They provide effective use of space
for both passengers and cargo
whilst not having the increased drag
of a large circular fuselage, and
they are cost efective.

Engines would be rear mounted.

FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION
There are three main types of construction in use:-
TRUSS OR FRAMEWORK
Generally used for light, non-
pressurized, aircraft.
The framework consists of light
gauge steel tubes welded together
to form a space frame of
triangular shape to give the most
rigid of geometric forms.
It is a strong, easily constructed
and relatively trouble free basic
structure.
MONOCOQUE
Generally used for light aircraft.
All the loads are taken by the skin
with just light internal frames or
formers to give the required
shape.
Even slight damage to the skin can
seriously weaken the structure.

SEMI-MONOCOQUE
Its widely used on most aircraft.
This type of structure is now
generally referred to as Stressed
Skin.

As aircraft became larger and the

air loads greater the pure
monocoque structure was not
strong enough and additional
structural members known as
stringers (stiffeners) and longerons
were added to run lengthwise along
the fuselage joining the frames
together.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MONOCOQUE AND

SEMI MONOCOQUE.

☐
STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

☐
LONGERONS
Longerons are beams in the fuselage that are fitted longitudinally from nose to
tail.
They are often placed below the floor and take the main bending loads of the
aircraft.

FRAMES/FORMERS
They give the aircraft its shape. They are designed to take major loads.
BULKHEADS
The front and rear bulkheads
separate the pressurized and
unpressurized areas of the
aircraft.

They are also designed to give the fuselage its shape and take some of the main
loads.
Some pictures to help you visualise better :-

FIREWALLS
There has to be means of separating the flight deck and cabin from the engine.
This is called a firewall.
 The firewall is required to protect the flight crew and passengers in the event of an
engine fire.

These are constructed using heat resistant stainless steel or titanium alloy.

CROSSBEAMS

HE
Crossbeams are used to add
strength to the aircraft and
support the passenger or
cargo floor.

FLOOR VENTING
Blow-out panels, which open
automatically to equalize the
pressure across the floor
structure, may be installed to
prevent distortion of the
flooring during a rapid
decompression.

DOUBLERS

,
When cut-outs are made to stressed
skin structures, for example to
provide access panels, passenger
windows or when repairs are required
to damaged areas, reinforcement, in
the form of DOUBLERS or backing
plates, is required around the cut-out.
 -4¥
FLIGHT DECK AND PASSENGER CABIN WINDOWS
FLIGHT DECK WINDOWS
The flight deck windows fitted to
pressurized aircraft must withstand
both the loads of pressurization and
impact loads from birdstrikes.

They are constructed from

toughened glass panels attached to
each side of a clear vinyl interlayer.

An electrically conducting
coating, applied to the inside of
the outer glass panel is used to
heat the window. This prevents
ice from forming and makes the
window more resilient and able
to withstand birdstrikes.
IN N E R GLAS
S

OUTE
R GLAS
S
 DIRECT VISION (DV) WINDOWS
Its a window opening provided in
the cabin to enable the pilot to

☐
land the aircraft safely should
forward vision be restricted.

• The DV window can be used in the event of a failure of the demisting system.
• Can be opened in flight if the aircraft is depressurized.
• Depending on size, may also be used as an emergency exit.

PASSENGER CABIN WINDOWS

These are designed to be ‘fail-

safe’ and normally have two
panes of acrylic plastic
mounted in an airtight rubber
seal fitted into a metal
window frame.

The inner and outer panes are

each capable of taking the full
cabin pressurization load. If
one pane fails the other will
prevent loss of cabin pressure.

MAINPLANES (Wings)
The wings support the weight of the aircraft in the air and so must have sufficient
strength and stiffness to be able to do this.
The type of construction used depends on the speed requirements of the aircraft.
The types of construction are:
BIPLANE

¥-7
Very few biplanes fly at more than
200 knots in level light and so the air
loads are low, which means that the
truss type design covered in fabric is
satisfactory.

BRACED MONOPLANE
This type of design is also used on
low speed aircraft. (Eg Cessna 172)

CANTILEVER MONOPLANE
The mainplanes have to absorb the
stresses due to lift and drag in
flight and, if of cantilever design,
their own weight when on the
ground.

This will be achieved by building the

wing around one or more main
load bearing members known as spars.
When the aircraft in flight, the wing needs enough stiffness to resist the torsional
loads which will cause twisting.
Bending stress relief is also provided by mounting the engines on the wing and
positioning the major fuel tanks within the wing.
During flight the fuel in the wing tanks is the last to be used.
WING STRUCTURE

SPAR

-4¥
Its the main structural member of
the wing.
It withstands bending and torsional
loads.

RIBS
It maintains the aerofoil shape of the
wings, support the spars, stringers and
skin against buckling and pass
concentrated loads from engines,
landing gear and control surfaces into
the skin and spars.

A lightening hole in a rib lightens and

stiffens the structure
 SKIN
It takes the loads due to differences in air pressures and the mass and inertia
of the fuel (if any) in the wing tanks. It generates direct stresses in a
spanwise direction as a response to bending moments and also reacts against
twisting (torsion) .

STRINGERS
They are spanwise members giving the wing rigidity by stiffening the skin in
compression.

Torsion Box - These four main component parts form the torsion box I.e Spar, Ribs,
Skin and Stringers.

FLUTTER
Flutter is an uncontrolled oscillation that can occur on fixed surfaces, such as
the wing or on control surfaces such as the ailerons or elevators.
Flutter must not occur within the normal flight operating envelope of the aircraft.
Flutter can be prevented by mass balancing control surfaces. (move the control
surface C of G closer to the hinge)

RESONANCE
When the applied frequency is equal to the natural frequency of an object it begins to
resonate with increasing amplitude.
If the aircraft is subjected to a gust it will shake up and down with the wings flapping
at a certain frequency. If the vibration is similar to that of the structure of the wing
then it will begin to resonate. The resonance will amplify the flutter and may well lead
to failure of the structure.
STABILISING SURFACES
There are many diferent designs of the empennage (tail unit) e.g. Conventional, T-tail,
H-tail, V-tail.

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The horizontal surfaces are known as the tailplane or horizontal stabilizer, provide
longitudinal stability by generating upwards or downwards forces as required.

The vertical surface is known as vertical stabilizer or fin which generates sideways
forces as required.

MATERIALS USED IN MODERN AIRCRAFT

Modern aircraft are constructed mainly of aluminium and its alloys with smaller
amounts of steel and titanium for the major structural components with composite
materials used extensively for more lightly loaded structures.
STRUCTURAL LIMITATIONS
MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL TAXI MASS / MAXIMUM RAMP MASS
It is the structural limitation of the aeroplane mass at commencement of
taxi.
The aeroplane would then burn fuel down to ‘Take-of Mass’ (TOM).

MAXIMUM TAKE OFF MASS (MTOM)

This is the maximum permissible mass of the aeroplane including everything and
everyone contained in it at the start of the take off run.

MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL LANDING MASS (MSLM)

The maximum permissible total aeroplane mass on landing in normal circumstances.

MAXIMUM ZERO FUEL MASS (MZFM)

Its defined as the maximum permissible mass of an aeroplane with no usable fuel.
HYDRAULICS

☐
INTRODUCTION
Hydraulics is used for the generation, control, and transmission of power by the use of
pressurized liquids.
Hydraulic systems provide the power for the operation of components such as
landing gear, flaps, flight controls, wheel brakes, windshield wipers and other systems
that require high power, accurate control and rapid response rates.

PASCAL’S LAW

-1¥
If a force is applied to a liquid in a
confined space, then this force will be
felt equally in all directions.

Pressure = Force

=
Area
Force = Pressure x Area (Total Load)
S.I Unit = N/m OR Pascal

BRAMAH’S PRESS
• The smaller the area
under load, the greater
the pressure generated.

• The larger the area

under pressure, the
greater will be the load
available.
PASSIVE HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

Es
A passive hydraulic system is one
in which there is no pump and
pressure is only produced when a
force is applied to a piston.

It activates when pilot applies

pressure.

A good example of this would be a light aircraft braking system which has a
master cylinder to generate the pressure when the brake pedal is pressed, and a
slave cylinder to ‘do the work’ of moving a piston and applying the brakes.

ACTIVE HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

A pump is required to deliver a flow
of fluid into the system and some
form of restriction is required to
obtain pressure.

In hydraulic systems, this restriction is

provided by movable pistons which
travel backwards and forwards in
cylinders, these assemblies being known
as hydraulic jacks or actuators.

Basically, pressure is always available in

active hydraulic system.
SEALS

¥
Seals perform a very important function
of preventing leakage of hydraulic fluid in
the hydraulic system.
“U” and “V” ring seals are effective
only in one direction.
“O” rings and square section seals are
often used where pressure is applied in
either direction.

HYDRAULIC FLUID
DEF STAN 91-48
• A refined mineral based fluid (petroleum)
• Colour - Red
• Seals - Synthetic Neoprene rubber seals

SKYDROL
• A Synthetic fluid (Phosphate Easter based).
• Colour - Purple.
• Seals - Synthetic Butyl rubber seals.
• Is Fire resistant.
• Less prone to cavitation (bubble formation) due to
high boiling point.

Hydraulic fluids should be handled with care as they are considered to be a skin and
eye irritant.
 It is of major importance that only the specified hydraulic fluid or its approved
alternative is used in a hydraulic system or else it will cause breakdown of Seals
causing hydraulic fluid leakage.

IDEAL PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC FLUID

• Be relatively incompressible, i.e. up to 27.6 MN/m2 (276 bar), so ensuring instantaneous
operation.
• Have good lubricating properties for metal and rubber.
• Have good viscosity with a high boiling point (helps prevent vapour locking and
cavitation) and low freezing point e.g. temperature range +80°C to -70°C.
• Have a flash point above 100°C.
• Be non-flammable.
• Be chemically inert. (non reactive to metals)
• Be resistant to evaporation and low volatility.
• Have freedom from sludging and foaming.
• Be non-corrosive.
• Be reasonably priced and really available.

BASIC HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

RESERVOIR
A reservoir provides storage space for the
system fluid & supplies fluid to the pump.
PUMP
It either hand, engine or electrically driven.
SELECTOR OR CONTROL VALVE
It enables the operator to select direction of
flow of fluid to the required service and
providing a return path for the fluid to
return to the reservoir.
 ACTUATOR/JACK
To actuate the component.
FILTER
To keep the fluid clean.
RELIEF VALVE
Its used as a safety device to relieve excess pressure.

CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

Active hydraulic systems are generally classified as low or high pressure.
Low pressure up to 2000 psi and high pressure above that with working system
pressures averaging 3000 psi.
The main advantage of a high pressure system is that the size of the actuators can be
reduced, these need less fluids and the pipes can be made smaller. The combination of
these leads to reduction in weight and saves space.

OPEN CENTRE SYSTEM

1¥
The main advantage of this
system is that its simple.

The main disadvantage is that

only one service can be
operated at a time.

The fluid is passed directly to the

reservoir when no services are being
operated.
This allows the engine driven pump
to run in an ‘off loaded’ condition as
little pressure is generated but there
is still a flow of fluid through the
pump to cool and lubricate it.
 On selection of a user system the
fluid is directed to the actuator,
which will move.
When the actuator reaches the
end of its travel, pressure will
build up to a value when the
selector is returned to neutral in
order to off load the pump and
the fluid goes back to reservoir.

The relief valve will relieve excess

pressure if the selector does not
return to its neutral position.

This type of system is popular in many light aircraft which do not require a
constant pressure to be maintained all the time as only items like landing gear and
flaps will be powered for short periods of time each flight.

The working pressure of these systems is usually up to 2000 psi.

CLOSED SYSTEM
Closed system is used on almost
all large aircraft.
The main advantage of that
multiple services can be operated
at the same time.
 When the actuator reaches end of its travel, it’s not necessary for the selector
valve to return to neutral as the pump control system is designed to deal with the
consequent pressure increase.

None the less, the selector valve returns to neutral in most systems as it carries
out the important function of producing hydraulic lock across the actuator.

Hydraulic lock - Fluid is locked on in both sides of the actuator. As fluid is

incompressible, the actuator won’t produce any undemanded movement.

POWER PACK
Light aircraft may alternatively be fitted with a self-contained power pack.
The pack may operate the landing gear retraction system, they are also be used on
large aircraft as emergency systems or to operate freight doors, etc.

LOW PRESSURE BOILING

Atmospheric Pressure
When atmospheric pressure > Liquid
pressure :- The liquid stays in liquid state.
When atmospheric pressure Liquid
.

Pressure :- The Liquid starts boiling.

Liquid pressure
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
BLOCK DIAGRAM

¥¥¥¥ ¥①
' Reservoir

Measures temperature
T
Cooler
Suction Broad mesh
Filter Big debris

Pump

1 )
¥##
Pressure Small mesh
Filter Small debris

_☒*=
Scavenge
☐
Load/Engine
Scavenge
Pump

Scavenge pump is always bigger

To detect metal particles if than the normal pump.
any from the engine and to
prevent it from going into the
scavenge pump.
RESERVOIR
A reservoir provides storage space
for the system fluid, supplies fluid to
the pump and compensates for small
leaks.

☐
It also provides sufficient air space to allow for any variations of fluid in the
system which may be caused by :-
• Jack (actuator) displacement, since the capacity of the jack is less when
contracted than extended.
• Thermal expansion, since the volume of fluid increases with temperature.
Most reservoirs are pressurised to provide a positive fluid pressure at the
pump inlet and to prevent air bubbles from forming in the fluid.

1¥
The reservoir also contains
connections to suction pipes to the
pump and return pipes from the
system.

Fins and baffles prevent slushing and

foaming of the liquid during
aircraft’s inflight manoeuvres.

In systems containing more than one

pump, the main pump is usually engine
driven while the back up pump maybe
electrically or pneumatically (air) driven
or may even be a hand pump.
 F.¥
The main pump will draw its fluid
through a stack pipe in the
reservoir whereas the backup
pump will collect its fluid from
the bottom of the reservoir.

This ensures that if fluid is lost

from the main pump, a reserve of
fluid for the back up pump will still
be available.

FILTER
Filters are fitted in both sides of the
pump.
Filters remove foreign particles from
the fluid.
Suction filter - To protect the pump.
Pressure filter - To ensure the
cleanliness of the fluid during use.

Types of filter :-
In some filters, when the filter
element becomes clogged, a visual
indication is given in the form of
a button or warning lamp.

Filter
element
 ¥¥
Filter element is completely clogged
and visual indication is given in the
form of a button.

Other filters are fitted with

Bypass/Relief valve which allows
unfiltered fluid to pass through the
system when the filter element
becomes clogged.

Its done because unfiltered fluid is

better than no fluid in the system.

PUMPS
Pumps draw fluid from the
reservoir and deliver a supply
of fluid to the system.
Pumps may be :-
• Hand operated
• Engine driven
• Electric motor driven
• Pneumatically driven (Air turbine motor - ATM)
• Ram air turbine (RAT)
• Power transfer unit (PTU)
In most cases the ATM, RAT or PTU is used to provide an alternate supply as part
of the redundancy provision for the safe operation of the aircraft.

FI
Ram air turbine supplies power to the primary flight controls and flight critical
instrumentation in case of emergency.

The PTU can restore pressure in a

deficient circuit without actually
transferring fluid from the working
circuit to the deficient one.

In case of A320, it has 3 hydraulic

systems : Blue, yellow and green.
The green and the yellow hydraulic
systems are connected at the PTU.
The PTU enables the green system to be powered by the yellow system or vice
verse, without fluid transfer.
With only one engine running (eg during single engine taxi), the PTU is automatically
activated when the pressure differential between green and yellow hydraulic
systems exceeds 500 psi. This is why you hear the barking dog sound coming from
under the floor as PTU is located beneath the cabin floor.

HAND PUMPS
Hand Pumps may be the only
source of power in a small light
aircraft.
In larger aircrafts, they may be
used for :-
• To allow ground servicing to
take place without the need
for engine running.
• So that lines and joints can be pressure tested.
• So that cargo doors etc. can be operated without power.
 The hand pump is usually a double acting pump (delivers fluid on both strokes)
in a very compact body. It incorporates non-return valves (NRVs), and a relief
valve which can be set to relieve at any required pressure, typically this is
about 10% above normal system pressure.

ENGINE DRIVEN PUMPS (EDP) OR ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN PUMPS

They may be classified as follows :-
CONSTANT DELIVERY (FIXED VOLUME) TYPE PUMP

1¥
This pump supplies fluid at a constant
rate (irrespective whether the system
needs the same amount of fluid or
not) and therefore needs an automatic
cut-out valve (ACOV) or relief valve to
return the fluid to the reservoir when
the jacks have reached the end of
their travel, and when the system is
not operating it provides an idling
circuit.
Cut in - A service is being operated
Cut out - No service is being operated and the system is idling.

ACOV consists of :-
• A piston - It senses
system pressure.
• Spring - It opposes
system pressure.
• Poppet valve - It opens
and closes and is
controlled by the piston.

The ACOV operates in two modes cut in and cut out.

ACOV Cut In

¥-1
In cut in mode, spring
pressure > system pressure, System
pressure
the piston is fully down
and the poppet valve is
closed.

System pressure is low as a

service has been selected.

ACOV Cut Out

In cut out mode, spring System

pressure
pressure < system pressure,
the piston moves up and
the poppet valve is opened.
This allows the pump
output to return to the
reservoir.
There would still be fluid going through the pump to cool and lubricate it.

A constant delivery pump delivers the same amount of fluid without regard to
flow required by the system, with unused fluid being returned to the reservoir
via a relief valve. This wastes energy.
CONSTANT PRESSURE (VARIABLE VOLUME) TYPE PUMP
This pump supplies fluid at a variable volume and controls its own pressure.
This type of pump is typically fitted in modern aircraft whose systems operate
at 3000-4000 psi.
This pump is made up of number of components :-
Kidney plate - Named so due to the two kidney shaped
slots cut in it.

The fluid supply from

the reservoir enters the
pump through one slot
and the pressurised fluid
exits by the other.

Cylinder Block - The cylinder block is rotated

by whichever source is driving the pump.
A number of cylinders are cut in to this
block.

Each cylinder has a piston fitted into it. PISTONS

The pistons are connected by shoes to the

non rotating yoke or swash plate.
 7¥
The angle of the swash plate and thus the
piston stroke is varied by the position of
the control piston.

The control piston has pump output

pressure on one side of it and spring
pressure on the other. SPR
ING

With the pump stationary there will be no hydraulic pressure, so the spring will
push the control piston fully to the right and the swash plate angle will be
maximum.

The entire assembly is enclosed in a

case which is filled with hydraulic
fluid to cool the pump.

After cooling the pump, this fluid

returns back to the reservoir via
an independent pipeline. This fluid is
known as case drain fluid.

Operation :-

I☒
 If a service is operated (eg the Landing gear is being retracted), the
system pressure would fall, the spring will push the control piston to the
right, increasing the swash plate angle and thus increase piston stroke.

☐☐☐☐
When the service reaches its required position (eg Landing gear is fully
retracted), the system pressure will rise, the control piston will move to
the left and swash plate will be almost vertical, piston movement will be
almost zero and there will only be a small flow of fluid through the
pump. This flow of fluid is for pump cooling and lubrication.

HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATORS
An accumulator is fitted :-
• To store hydraulic fluid under
pressure.
• To dampen pressure fluctuations.
• To allow for thermal expansion.
• To allow for emergency supply
of fluid to the system in the
event of pump failure.
 • To prolong the period between cut-out and cut-in time of the ACOV and
to reduce the wear on the pump.
• To provide the initial fluid when a selection is made and the pump is cut-out.

An accumulator shows system pressure.

The gas side of the accumulator is charged to a predetermined pressure with air
or nitrogen.
Incorrect pre-charge pressure of the main accumulator can cause the ACOV to
cut in and out too frequently. This may cause rapid fluctuations of system
pressure which can be felt and heard as ‘hammering’ in the system.

☐☐
HYDRAULIC JACKS (ACTUATORS)
Actuators are used to convert fluid flow into linear or rotary motion.
Types of Actuators:-
Single Acting Actuator
It is hydraulically actuated in one direction only. The force to move it in the other
direction is provided by a spring.
Its normally used as a locking device, the lock being engaged by spring pressure and
released by hydraulic pressure. A typical application is a landing gear downlock.

Double Acting Unbalanced Actuator

It is operated hydraulically in both directions. It is used in most of the aircraft
systems.

58
Because of the presence of Piston
the piston rod, the piston
face to which the rod is Piston rod
attached has a smaller area
for the fluid to act than the
other face.

(more) (less)

Hence, more force can be applied during extension of the piston rod than
during retraction.
 Normally the operation which
offers greater resistance is

☐
carried out in the direction in
which piston rod extends.

For eg in the case of landing

gear, the piston rod will extend
to raise the gear and retract
to lower the gear.

Double Acting Balanced Actuator

In this type of actuator, equal force can be applied to both sides of the piston.
Its used in applications such as nose wheel steering and hydraulically powered
flying control systems.

PRESSURE CONTROL
In large modern aircraft, the normal operating pressure of a hydraulic system is
around 3000 psi. Smaller aircrafts may have system operating at 1500 psi.

THERMAL RELIEF VALVE

They are usually fitted in lines

isolated by NRV (non return valve)
or selectors.

The fluid trapped in these lines will

attempt to expand if the
temperature increases.
☐
They are adjusted to blow of at a pressure slightly higher than normal system
pressure, typically 10%.
 PRESSURE MAINTAINING/PRIORITY VALVE
It isolates secondary
services from the pressure
supply if pressure falls below
a predetermined value.

Thus giving priority to the

operation of primary services.
☐
PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE
Its often used to reduce main system pressure to a value suitable for operation
of a service such as the wheel brakes.

FLOW CONTROL
The components below are used to control the flow of fluid to the various services
operated by the hydraulic system.

NON RETURN VALVE (NRV)

The most common device used to
control the flow of fluid is the non

☐☐
return valve.

This valve permits full flow in one

direction, but blocks flow in the
opposite direction.
ONE WAY RESTRICTOR VALVE (CHOKE)

8
Its designed to permit
limited fluid flow in one
direction and full flow in the
other direction.

A restrictor valve is used in a

number of locations in order to
limit the speed of operation of
an actuator in one direction
only.

For eg, used to slow down flap retraction or landing gear extension (up line for
both).

SELECTOR VALVES
Selector valves are used to direct fluid
to the appropriate side of a jack and
connect the other side to return line
to the reservoir.
SHUTTLE VALVES
A shuttle valve is used to allow one service to be operated by two independent
supplies at different times.

During normal operation, free flow is

provided from the normal system to
the service and the alternate line is
blocked. ☐
When normal system pressure is lost
and the alternate system is selected,
the shuttle valve moves across
blocking the normal line and allowing
the alternate supply to operate the
services. For eg brakes, landing gear
etc.
☐
SEQUENCE VALVES

☐
Sequence valves are often fitted in a
landing gear to ensure correct sequence
of door opening and closing happens
when the gear is raised or lowered.

☐
FLOW CONTROL VALVES
A flow control valve may be fitted in a hydraulic system to maintain a constant
flow of fluid to a particular component.
It is frequently found upstream of a hydraulic motor which is required to
operate at a constant speed.

FUSES
Fitted upstream of components to shut off
flow and prevent total loss of system fluid
incase there is a leak. The service will be
inoperative but the rest of the system will
function as normal.
Eg
LANDING GEAR
INTRODUCTION
The functions of the landing gear are :-
• To provide a means of manoeuvring the aircraft on the ground.
• To provide clearance for engines, propellers and flaps by keeping the
aircraft at a convenient height.
• To absorb the kinetic energy of landing and provide a means of
controlling deceleration.

FIXED LANDING GEAR

Fixed landing gear are fitted to slow, light aircraft for which simplicity is of a
prime importance. (Eg Cessna 172)

Types of fixed landing gear shock absorption systems :-

SPRING STEEL LEGS

8
Spring steel legs are usually employed
at the main undercarriage positions.
The upper end is attached to
the fuselage by bolts and the
lower end to the axle on which
wheels and brakes are assembled.

RUBBER CORD
When rubber cord is used as a shock-absorber, the
undercarriage is usually in the form of tubular struts,
designed and installed so that the landing force is
directed against a number of turns of rubber in the
form of a loop.
 ☐☐
Strut - Its a structural component
designed to resist compression.

OLEO PNEUMATIC STRUTS

Some fixed main landing gears and most fixed
nose landing gear as well as almost all retractable
landing gears are fitted with an oleo pneumatic
shock absorbing strut.

CONSTRUCTION
A simple oleo pneumatic strut
consists of two concentric cylinders.
The upper cylinder is filled with
hydraulic fluid while the lower
cylinder is filled with gas (nitrogen
or compressed air).

The fluid and gas are kept apart by a

separator piston.
☐☐
 8
The upper (outer) cylinder is fixed
rigidly to the airframe structure. It
houses the lower (inner) cylinder and
the piston assembly.

The wheels and axle are connected

to the bottom of the inner Torque Links

cylinder.
The inner cylinder is free to move up
and down within the outer cylinder,
but these movements are limited by
Torque links.

The landing gear is subjected to

torsion loads while ground
manoeuvring. These loads are taken
by Torque links.

OPERATION
The gas supports the weight of the aircraft
on the ground, cushions bumps during taxing
and absorbs the shock on landing.

The purpose of the fluid is only to dampen

oscillations and to control the rate of
compression and extension of the cylinders.

Normal taxiing bumps are cushioned by the gas

pressure and dampened by the limited flow of
fluid through the orifice.
 Methods used to connect the wheel or wheels to the undercarriage leg :-

☐☐
RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR
The majority of modern transport
aircraft and an increasing number of light
aircraft are fitted with a retractable
landing gear for the purpose of improving
aircraft performance by reducing drag.

Retractable landing gear is also provided with mechanical locks to ensure that each
undercarriage is locked securely in the retracted and extended positions.

DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION OF RETRACTABLE GEAR

TAIL DRAGGER (CONVENTIONAL GEAR)

Tail draggers have the danger of it tipping

over onto its nose while taxiing in a strong
tailwind and ground looping.
 TRICYCLE GEAR

The tricycle gear has one nose u/c unit and two main u/c units.
The nose wheel unit keeps the aircraft level, and in most cases also provides a
means of steering.
The two main undercarriage units are positioned just aft of the CG and support up
to 90% of the aircraft’s weight and all initial landing shocks.

LOADS SUSTAINED BY THE LANDING GEAR

COMPRESSIVE
The compressive loads during landing
and while the aircraft is on the
ground is cushioned by oleo
pneumatic struts.

REARWARD BENDING
The landing gear is subjected to
rearward bending loads during
braking. These loads are taken by
the drag strut.
☐☐
SIDE LOADS

The side loads during crosswind

landings, takeoff and taxiing are
taken by the side struts.

☐
FORWARD LOADS
Nose gear is subjected to forward loads during pushback. These loads are taken
by the drag strut assembly.

TORSIONAL LOADS
The landing gear is subjected to torsion loads while ground manoeuvring. These
loads are taken by Torque links.
NOSE UNDERCARRIAGE

A nose undercarriage unit is a lighter structure

than a main unit since it carries less weight and

☐☐
is usually only subject to direct compression
loads.

It does however carry the attachment

for the towing equipment and so must
withstand shear loads as well

Design of the nose undercarriage is complicated by several factors like :-

CASTORING
A castoring nose wheel is free to move to a certain amount of degrees when a
force is applied to it and it also has the ability to centre it self when the said
force is removed.

An airplane with a castoring wheel can be turned using :-

• Differential braking :- Here, the pilot can use the brakes of the aircraft to make
turns. When left brake is pressed, the aircraft moves to the left and when the
right brake is pressed the aircraft moves to the right.
 • The rudder :- When the pilot moves the rudder, aerodynamic forces on it can
move the wheel and this moves the airplane on the ground.

• If the aircraft has two engines, differential thrust can be used to turn the
wheel and thus the aircraft.

Large airplanes are steered on the ground using nose wheel steering but almost
all of them have means of castoring in failure mode.

SELF CENTRING
Automatic self-centring of the nose wheel is essential prior to landing gear
retraction.
If the nose gear is not in a central position prior to its retraction, the restricted
space available for its stowage will not be sufficient and severe damage may be
caused to the aircraft structure as the hydraulic system forces the gear upwards.
Centring is achieved by either a spring loaded cam or a hydraulic dashpot.

NOSE WHEEL STEERING

A method of steering is required to enable the pilot to manoeuvre the aircraft
safely on the ground.

Most large commercial aircrafts use hydraulically powered steering systems

allowing the engines to be set at a minimum thrust for taxiing, thereby saving
fuel.
This method of steering is more accurate and also reduces tyre and brake wear
and noise pollution.

On large aircrafts, steering is controlled with the help

☐
of a tiller or by the operation of the rudder pedals.
On some large aircrafts, the rudder pedal has a limited
steering capability allowing the pilots to keep the
aircraft straight during take off.
 Small light aircraft use a simple steering system where the nose wheel is
mechanically linked to the rudder pedals. (Eg Cessna)

A tiller moves the aircraft 75° either side.

①
A quick release pin enables the nose
wheel to be moved either side to a
maximum of 95°during pushback and
other ground servicing. Nose wheel
steering is then disconnected from the
hydraulic system because as you
commence pushback, you also start
your main engines applying hydraulic
pressure to the system.

NOSE WHEEL SHIMMY

Due to the flexibility of tyre side walls, an unstable rapid sinusoidal oscillation or
vibration known as shimmy is induced into the nose undercarriage.
Worn or broken torque links, wear in the wheel bearings and uneven tyre pressures
can all increase the tendency to shimmy.
Excessive shimmy, especially at high speeds, can set up vibrations throughout the
aircraft and can be dangerous.

A likely cause of nose wheel shimmy is a damaged or worn out torque link.
 Shimmy can be reduced in several ways :-

• By fitting a hydraulic damper or heavy

self centring springs.
☐
• Double nose wheels & twin contact
wheels.

UNDERCARRIAGE POSITION INDICATOR

Gear down and locked - 3 green lights ☐☐

Gear in transition or unlocked - 3 red lights.
 8
Gear up and locked - All lights out.

GEAR SELECTOR LOCK

To prevent inadvertent retraction of the landing gear
when the aircraft is resting on its wheels on the
ground, a safety device is incorporated which prevents
movement of the selector lever.

This safety device consists of a mechanical lock which

retains the selector in the down position and is
released by the operation of a solenoid.

GROUND LOCKS
Ground locks or landing gear locking pins are a
further safety feature which are intended to
prevent inadvertent retraction of the gear when
the aircraft is on the ground.

They usually consist of pins or metal sleeves which

interfere with the operation of the gear in such a
way that it is impossible for the gear to move
when they are in position.

They are fitted with warning flags which should

prevent the crew from getting airborne with
them still in position on the gear.
 A further external check must be carried out after the ground locks have been
removed as getting airborne with them fitted will often require the dumping of
fuel before landing again to have them removed.

On some aircraft, after removal they are stowed on board in a position visible to
the crew.

EMERGENCY LOWERING SYSTEMS

A means of extending the landing gear and locking it in the down position is provided
in the event of of main system failure.

F
In most modern aircrafts, the
uplocks maybe released electrically
(e.g B747) or mechanically (e.g
B737).
ELECTRICAL MECHANICAL

Once the uplocks have been released, the landing gear lowers (free falls) under its own
weight and the downlocks are engaged mechanically by springs.

AIR/GROUND LOGIC SYSTEM

There are systems of all types which need to be selected on or off in response to
the criterion of whether the aircraft is airborne or not.
This effect can be obtained by merely placing microswitches or proximity sensors
(used in modern aircraft) on the landing gear oleos which then detect the
extension or retraction of the landing gear.

Inadvertent retraction of the landing gear on the ground is prevented by the air/
ground logic system.

SPEEDS
VLO - The maximum landing gear operating speed (speed to move the
landing gear up or down).
V LE - The maximum landing gear extended speed.
AIRCRAFT WHEELS

The wheels and tyres of an aircraft

support it when on the ground and
provide it with a means of mobility
for take-off, landing and taxiing.

☐☐ TYRE WHEEL

The pneumatic tyres cushion the aircraft from shocks due to irregularities in the
ground surface and takes some of the shocks on landing.

The main wheels and in some cases nose wheels,

house brake units which control the movement
of the aircraft and provide a means of
deceleration on landing.
Aircraft wheels are so designed as to facilitate tyre replacement. Wheels are classified
as follows :-
LOOSE AND DETACHABLE FLANGE WHEEL

In these type of wheel, one flange is

integral with the wheel body and the
other is a separate removable part.

FLANGE

The difference between the loose flange type and the detachable flange type is
the method by which the removable flange is secured.

LOOSE FLANGE TYPE WHEEL

In the loose flange type, the flange

is retained by a locking device on
the wheel rim and held in place by
the tyre pressure.

DETACHABLE FLANGE TYPE WHEEL

In the detachable flange type, the

flange is secured to the wheel body
by nuts and bolts. ☐☐
 ☐WHEEL RIM

DIVIDED WHEEL (Split Hub)

The type of wheel most usually found on aircraft is the divided wheel.

☐☐☐
The divided wheel consists of two half wheels, matched up and connected by
bolts which pass through the two halves.
This wheel is designed to be used with a tubeless tyre.
PREVENTION OF CREEP
Creep (Slippage) - Its the tendency of the tyre to rotate around the wheel, when
in service particularly during heavy braking.
This creep if excessive, will tear out the inflation valve on wheel fitted with an
inner tube (tubed tyre) causing the tyre to burst.
Creep is less likely to occur if the tyre air pressure is correctly maintained.

¥8
Tubeless tyres are not likely to be
affected by creep as the inflation valve is
built into the wheel itself.

Methods of counteracting/monitoring creep are as follows :-

• Knurled Flange - The inner face of the

wheel flange is milled (red) so that the
side pressure of the tyre locks the beads
to the flange.

.
• Tapered Bead seat - The wheel is tapered
so that the flange area is of greater
diameter than at the centre of the rim.
When the tyre is inflated, the side
pressure forces the bead outwards to
grip the rim.

☐☐☐☐
• Creep Marks - Creep can be detected
by misalignment of two matched
white lines one painted on the wheel
and one on the tyre.

• The tyre can remain in service provided the

creep marks overlap each other.

• The tyre must be changed if the creep

marks become completely misaligned.
 Creep is less likely to occur if the tyre pressure is correctly maintained. To assist in
this, tyre manufacturers specify a RATED INFLATION PRESSURE for each tyre.

This figure applies to a cold tyre not under load, i.e a tyre not fitted to an aircraft.

Distortion of the tyre cover when the weight of the aircraft is on it will cause
the tyre pressure to rise by 4%.

When checking the tyre pressure of a cold tyre fitted to an aircraft you should
mentally add 4% to the rated tyre pressure.

During use, that is during taxiing, take-off or landing, the tyres will become heated.
This can cause up to a further 10% rise in tyre pressure.

FUSIBLE PLUGS
Under extra hard braking conditions the heat generated in
the wheel, tyre and brake assembly could be sufficient to
cause the pressure to rise to a level that could cause a

☐☐
tyre blowout.

To prevent a sudden blowout fusible plugs/

thermal plugs are fitted in some wheels
with tubeless tyres.
These plugs are screwed into holes in the
wheel rim. They are sealed by a piston which
is held in position in the plug by a fusible
alloy.
#
Under excessive heat conditions, the alloy melts allowing the piston to escape. This
causes the tyre to deflate in a controlled manner.

Fusible plugs protect the tyres from explosion due to overheating by releasing the
gas in a controlled manner if an excessive temperature is reached.
Different colours of fusible plugs based on temperature :-
• Red - 155°C
• Green - 177°C
• Amber - 199°C

AIRCRAFT TYRES
Aircraft wheels are fitted with pneumatic tyres which may be tubeless or have
an inner tube.
Tubed tyres tend to be fitted to light and older aircraft. Most modern aircrafts
have tubeless tyres fitted..
Tyres are usually inflated with nitrogen which absorbs shock and supports the weight
of the aircraft.
The tyre cover maintains the shape of the tyre, transmits braking and provides a
wearing surface. If a tube is fitted inside the tyre, the cover also restrains and
protects the tube from damage.
TYPES OF TYRE CONSTRUCTION
There are 2 types of tyres in common use. They are known as bias/cross ply tyres
and radial ply tyres.

The tyre consists of a casing made

of plies of cotton, rayon or nylon
cords.

CORDS

The cords are not woven but arranged parallel in single layers and held together
by a thin film of rubber which prevents cords of adjacent plies from cutting one
another as the tyre flexes during use.

During construction of the tyre, the plies

are fitted in pairs.
The cords of plies are at approximately
30-40 degrees, with successive plies laid at
opposing angles forming a crisscross
pattern in the case of bias/cross plytyres.
 E
The cords of adjacent plies are from
bead to bead at approximately 90
degrees to the centre line of the
tyre in radial plytyres.

Ply rating - The rating does not relate directly to the number of plies in the tyre,
but is the index of the strength of the tyre.

REGIONS OF THE TYRE

BEAD
Its the part of the tyre designed to grip
the rim of the wheel.
The bead is seated inside the flange of the
wheel.

TREAD
The tread of the tyre is situated
in the crown and shoulder section.

It should be noted that the term

‘tread’ is applied irrespective of
whether the rubber is plain and
smooth, or moulded on a block
pattern.
 8
The most popular tread pattern is that termed
Ribbed, which has circumferential grooves around
the tyre to assist in water dispersion and to help
prevent aquaplaning (hydroplaning).

The all weather tread pattern even though

not seen so frequently is Diamond tread
pattern.

☐☐
CHINE

A chine tread pattern is used on the nose gear of the aircraft with rear fuselage
mounted jet engines to deflect runway water away from the engine intake.
 ☐
CROWN
Crown wears out if the tyre pressure is too high.

SHOULDER
Shoulder wears out if the tyre pressure is too low.

SIDEWALLS (Thinnest Area)

The sidewalls allow the tyre to be flexible. The flexibility of the sidewall enhances
stability and provides maximum contact of the tyre with the surface.

Sidewalls are not designed to take any wear.

INFLATION VALVE
An inflation valve is required irrespective of the fact whether the tyre is fitted
with a tube or is tubeless.
 In case of tubed tyre, the inflation valve
forms a part of the tube installation.

In case of a tubeless tyre, the inflation

valve is fitted directly on the wheel rim.
Each inflation valve is fitted with a
Schrader valve core which operates as a
non return valve. The valve core is not
considered to be a perfect seal, therefore
the inflation valve must always be fitted
with a valve cap.
☐☐
The valve cap also prevents dirt from entering the valve.

TYRE PRESSURES
Four main categories of tyre pressures are :-

••••••••*•①
25-35 psi 35-70 psi 70-90 psi 90 psi
 #t
I
TYRE PRESSURE PSI DESIGNED TO OPERATE ON
Low pressure 25-35 Grass surfaces for take off
and landing.

Medium pressure 35-70 Grass surfaces or on medium

firm surfaces without a
consolidated base.

High pressure 70-90 Concrete runways.

Extra High pressure 90 Concrete runways. Used by

most modern airliners.

AQUAPLANING/HYDROPLANING
Aquaplaning is a phenomenon caused by water building up under the tread of the
tyre and breaking its contact with the ground, leading to loss of traction preventing
the aircraft from responding to control input.

Aquaplaning Speed (knots) = 9 P (P-tyre pressure in psi)

Aquaplaning Speed (knots) = 34 P (P-tyre pressure in bar)

REDUCTION OF TYRE WEAR

With the increased size of modern airports, taxi distances also increase, thus
increasing the amount of tyre wear and risk of damage.

To minimize tyre wear therefore, it is recommended that a speed of no more

than 25 mph (40 kph) should be reached during taxi.
AIRCRAFT BRAKES
In common with most braking
systems, aircraft wheel brakes function
by using friction between a fixed
surface and a moving one to bring an
aircraft to rest, converting kinetic
energy into heat energy.
☐
The amount of heat generated in stopping a large modern aircraft is enormous.
The problem of dissipating this heat has been a challenge to aircraft designers
and scientists for years.

Braking systems have been improved but aircraft have got faster and heavier making
heat dissipation a constant problem.

The use of reverse thrust on jet engine

aircrafts along with ground spoilers has

☐
helped to reduce the work the brakes
need to do.

But even with these, the need for

powerful brakes still exist.

PLATE OR DISC BRAKES

All modern aircraft now use plate or
disc brakes operated by hydraulic
systems as their means of slowing
down or stopping.

It consists of a pair of fixed friction

pads, gripping one or more rotating ROTATING PLATES
brake plates which rotates with the
wheel.
BE
A light aircraft will have a single rotating
brake plate whereas a large aircraft will
have multiple brake plate unit.

MODERN AIRCRAFT BRAKES

On large aircrafts, the braking surface is

increased by using multiple rotating brake
plates known as rotors. Stators are
sandwiched between rotors.

The rotors rotate along with the wheel

while the stators remain stationary with
the axle.

THRUST PLATE

The actuating pistons are housed in fixed torque plate. The pistons push the movable
pressure plate. The stator and rotors assemblies are fitted between the movable
pressure plate and the fixed thrust plate.
When the brake is applied, the hydraulic pressure
pushes the actuating pistons which in turn
pushes the pressure plate squeezing the rotors
and the stators between the pressure plate and
the thrust plate.

The harder the brake pedal is pressed, the greater

will be the braking force applied to the pressure
plate by the pistons.
☐
Each brake unit is fitted with brake adjusters
with springs to move the pressure plate
back when the brakes are released.

The retraction pin is connected to the

pressure plate. When the brakes are
released, the spring will pull the retraction
pin and the pressure plate to the left
allowing the stator and rotor assemblies
to move slightly apart.
☐☐
Brake Fade - If the brakes become too hot, they will not be able to absorb any
further energy and their ability to retard (slow down) the aircraft
diminishes. This phenomenon is termed Brake Fade which is caused by
brake pads overheating.
 Brake drag - If the spring inside the brake adjuster assembly ceases to function, then
the spring could be the cause of a brake not releasing correctly. This is
termed brake drag.

Brakes are made up of either steel or carbon. Carbon brakes are lighter and have
much better heat absorbing and dissipating properties as compared to steel.
Disadvantages of carbon brakes are their greater costs and shorter life. However, their
advantages far outweigh the disadvantages Carbon brakes are now found on most
modern aircrafts.

In the unfortunate event of a wheel or brake fire, the best extinguishant to use is
dry powder.

BRAKE WEAR

It is important that the thickness

of the brake lining material is
carefully monitored.
☐
On multiple disc brake systems, the most popular method of gauging the depth of
brake lining material remaining is by checking the amount that the retraction pin (or
the wear indicator pin) extends from the spring housing with the brakes selected on.

If the thickness of the brake lining material is too less, it means the brakes have
worn out and that it needs to be replaced.
EFFECTS OF ANTI SKID SYSTEMS ON PERFORMANCE
The anti-skid system, through various
mechanisms, compares the speed of

☐
the aircraft with the rotational speed
of each main wheel. If the speed of
any wheel is too slow for the existing
aircraft speed, the brake on that wheel
(or wheels) is released momentarily to
allow the wheel speed to increase and
prevent the wheel from skidding.

An anti-skid system will reduce the braking distance on both take-off and landing.
An inoperative anti-skid system will increase the take-off and landing distances required.

MECHANICAL ANTI SKID SYSTEMS

The basic principle of these systems is
the use of the inertia of a flywheel as
a sensor of wheel deceleration.

A wheel directly driven by the aircraft

wheel is coupled to the flywheel by a
spring.
☐
Any changes in aircraft wheel velocity causes a relative displacement between the
flywheel and the driven wheel.
This relative displacement is used as a control signal to operate a valve in the
hydraulic braking system to release the brake pressure.

ELECTRONIC ANTI SKID SYSTEMS

The response rates of the flywheels used in mechanical systems are low when
compared with electrical signalling.

The electronic system gives approximately a 15% improvement over the mechanical
unit with the advantage that it can be tested prior to use.
 ☐
The electronic system comprises three main elements :-
• A sensor which measures wheel speed.
• A control box (ASU) to compute wheel speed information.
• A servo valve (anti skid valve) to modulate brake pressure.

The ASU has a number of important functions that may include :-

TOUCHDOWN PROTECTION
This will prevent the brakes being applied before touchdown.
SKID PREVENTION
It will reduce the brake pressure to any wheel that it is approaching a skid by
monitoring the deceleration rate of the individual wheels.

LOCKED WHEEL PROTECTION

It will release the pressure to the locked wheel completely until the wheel spins
up again and the pressure will be re-applied.

HYDROPLANE PROTECTION
Systems that have this facility will monitor aircraft velocity and wheel speeds of
a complete bogie.
If all braked wheels hydroplane and lock up, then the pressure to some of the
wheels is released.
To enable the pilot to have full control of the brakes for taxiing and manoeuvring,
the anti-skid system is deactivated, either manually or automatically, when the
aircraft has slowed down to below approximately 20 mph, it is assumed then that
there is no further danger of skidding.
 ☒
AIRCRAFT PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
Pneumatics - Systems operated by air/gas under pressure.

A pneumatic system is fitted in most modern aircraft to supply some or all of

the following aircraft systems :-

• Air conditioning
• Pressurization
• Aerofoil and engine anti-icing
• Air turbine motors
• Engine starting
• Hydraulic power
• Thrust reverse
• Hydraulic reservoir and potable water tank pressurization
• Cargo compartment heating
Bleed Air - Its the fresh, clean, hot high pressure air taken from the compressor
section of the engine before it is mixed with fuel or exhaust gases.

☐
Ram Air - Its the cool low pressure air which
enters the aircraft. Its taken from the intakes
in the aircraft belly.

AIRCRAFT AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

There are two types of air conditioning systems commonly used on aircraft :-
• Air cycle air conditioning
• Vapour cycle air conditioning
AIR CYCLE AIR CONDITIONING
This is the preferred system for most modern jet transport aircraft.
It prepares engine bleed air to pressurize the aircraft cabin. The temperature
and quantity of the air must be controlled to maintain a comfortable cabin
environment at all altitudes and on the ground. The air cycle system is often
called the air conditioning package or pack.

A type of air cycle air conditioning system :- Turbo compressor (Bootstrap)

☒
BOOTSTRAP SYSTEM
Once a system has been started by
some external power source, the
working fluids (air in this case)
sustain the process on a self
sustaining basis, such a system is
known as a bootstrap system.

E.g - A gas turbine engine once started, sustains a bootstrap operation,

because the turbine continues to drive the compressor that feeds
air to the engine.

E.g - Another bootstrap system used by aircrafts is the bootstrap air

conditioning system which provides adequate cooling to the cabin
and electronic equipment.

TURBO COMPRESSOR (BOOTSTRAP)

At the heart of the bootstrap air conditioning system is a cold air unit (CAU).
The CAU is often referred to as an air cycle machine (ACM).
as
A heat exchanger is a system used to transfer heat between two or more
fluids. Heat exchangers are used in both cooling and heating processes. The
fluids may be separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing of fluids.
Even with the frigid temperatures experienced at high altitudes, bleed air is
too hot to be used in the cabin without being cooled. It is let into the air
cycle system and routed through the primary heat exchanger where ram air
cools the bleed air.

This cooled bleed air is directed into the compressor which increases the
temperature and pressure of the bleed air.

Then the bleed air goes through a secondary heat exchanger that cools the
bleed air again with ram air.

This bleed air then drives the expansion turbine and has a major temperature
and pressure drop.

This reduction in temperature might lead to formation of water due to

condensation, especially when the aircraft is flying in humid conditions. Hence,
a water separator is used to remove most of the water thus avoiding
spraying water into the cabin and electronic equipments.

The air is then mixed with bypassed bleed air for final temperature adjustment
and is then sent to the cabin.

Humidifier - Its used to increase the moisture content of the conditioning

air to a comfortable level to avoid physical discomfort arising due to low
humidity.

Mass flow controller -It is fitted to ensure that a constant mass flow is
supplied regardless of the engine rpm.
VAPOUR CYCLE AIR CONDITIONING
The absence of a bleed air source on reciprocating engine aircraft makes the use
of an air cycle system impractical for conditioning cabin air. Vapor cycle air
conditioning is used on most nonturbine aircraft that are equipped with air
conditioning.

☐
Vapour cycle air conditioning is a closed system in which a refrigerant is circulated
through tubing and a variety of components. The purpose is to remove heat from
the aircraft cabin. While circulating, the refrigerant changes state.

The refrigerant has a very low boiling point. When warm cabin air comes in contact
with it, the refrigerant absorbs the heat and evaporates changing from liquid to a
vapour.

The gaseous refrigerant exiting the evaporator is drawn into a compressor. There,
the pressure and the temperature of the refrigerant are increased.
The high-pressure high-temperature gaseous refrigerant flows through tubing to a
condenser. Outside air is directed over the condenser. The temperature of the
refrigerant inside is higher than the ambient air temperature, so heat is transferred
from the refrigerant to the outside air and the refrigerant condenses back to the
liquid state thus completing the vapour cycle.
HI
PRESSURISATION SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
Modern aircraft operate more efficiently at high altitudes and have high rates
of climb and descent.

In order to take advantage of these properties, the interior of an aircraft flying

at high altitude is pressurised to allow passengers and crew to function normally
without the need for additional oxygen.

Up to an altitude of 10000 ft, the air pressure and consequently the amount of
oxygen is sufficient for humans to operate without too many problems.

Once the cabin altitude (the pressure altitude corresponding to the pressure
inside the cabin) reaches 10000 ft, the crew must be on oxygen and at 14000 ft
cabin altitude the passengers must be on emergency oxygen.

Pressurization systems are designed to keep cabin altitude of modern airliners

around 6000 - 8000 ft (cabin pressure between 11 and 12 psi)

E.g
Why not keep the cabin at 14.7
psi to simulate sea-level
pressure and maximize
comfort?

--①
The answer is differential pressure.
The aircraft must be designed to
withstand differential pressure, oEe--
PRESSURE INSIDE CABIN

that’s the difference between the

air pressure inside and outside the
aircraft.

Differential pressure = Cabin pressure - Outside air pressure

Exceeding the differential pressure limit is what makes a balloon pop when it’s
over inflated.

The greater the differential pressure, the stronger (and heavier) the aircraft must
be built. It’s possible to build an aircraft that can withstand sea-level pressure
during cruise, but it would require a significant increase in strength and weight.

A 12 psi cabin is a good trade-off for the extra weight the aircraft might have
to carry otherwise.

Ey
The differential pressure also produces
hoop stresses every time the aircraft is
pressurised and de-pressurised causing
fatigue which can, ultimately, lead to
structural failure.

Hence, it is important to keep the maximum differential pressure to its lowest

possible value to reduce hoop stress.

Fatigue life of fuselage is based on number of pressurisation cycles.

Typical maximum differential

pressures for large jet transport
aircraft are between 8 and 9 psi.
PRESSURISED AND UNPRESSURISED AREAS

☐☐
SYSTEM CONTROL
Cabin pressurisation is controlled by
having a constant mass flow of air
entering the cabin and then varying
the rate at which it is discharged to
atmosphere.

The constant mass flow of air is supplied by the air-conditioning system and is
discharged to atmosphere by the discharge or outflow valves.

Air for conditioning and pressurisation is taken from engine compressor (bleed air).
TYPES OF VALVE
OUTFLOW/DISCHARGE VALVES

5
To control the cabin pressure, and to
allow old, stinky air to exit, there is a
motorized door called an outflow
valve.

If higher pressure is needed inside the

cabin, the door closes. To reduce cabin
pressure, the door slowly opens,
allowing more air to escape.
OUTFLOW VALVE

To maintain cabin height the same amount of air is let out as in. In cruise a
constant pressure is maintained in the cabin. The outflow valves are partly
open in the cruise.

Ditching control - It closes all the discharge valves to reduce the flow of
water into the cabin in the event of a force landing on
water.

SAFETY VALVE/POSITIVE PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

Every pressurized aircraft has a

maximum pressure differential limit.
Exceeding this limit (pumping too
much air pressure into the fuselage)
can cause damage – even blow out
doors and windows.

A safety valve is an outwards pressure relief valve fitted to relieve positive

pressure in the cabin when the maximum pressure differential allowed for the
aircraft type is exceeded.

Safety valve will open if the pressure rises by 0.25 psi above the max differential
pressure.
INWARD RELIEF VALVE/NEGATIVE PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

Tl
Negative pressure differential
means the pressure outside
the cabin is greater than the
pressure inside the cabin.

This situation could occur during a rapid descent. Negative pressure is bad
because it pushes inward on doors and windows which are not designed to
handle this type of force.

An inward relief valve is fitted to prevent excessive negative differential

pressure which will open inward if the pressure outside the aircraft
exceeds that inside the aircraft by 0.5 to 1.0 psi.

DUMP VALVE

Its manually operated.

It enables the crew to reduce the cabin
pressure to zero for emergency
depressurisation.
☐
PRESSURISATION CONTROLLER

8
The controller has inputs from the
aircraft static pressure sensing
system, the cabin pressure and air/
ground logic system.

Following are the functions of the controller :-

• Control cabin altitude
• Control cabin altitude rate of change
• Limit the maximum differential pressure

SYSTEM INSTRUMENTATION
The minimum indications required for a pressurization system are :-

CABIN ALTIMETER

This gauge reads cabin pressure but is calibrated

to read this in terms of the equivalent altitude
of the cabin.
 CABIN VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

This indicates the rate at which the aircraft

☐
cabin is climbing or descending.

Cabin ROC should not normally exceed 500 ft/min

and cabin ROD should not exceed 300 ft/min.

CABIN DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE GAUGE

This indicates the differential pressure between the

inside and outside of the aircraft cabin and is
generally calibrated in psi.
☐
OTHER INFO
Aural and visual warnings are given when the cabin altitude exceeds 10000 ft.
Outflow valve shut automatically when the cabin altitude exceeds 13000 ft.
Oxygen mask deploy automatically to the half-hung position when the cabin
altitude reaches 14000 ft.

An aircraft is prevented from pressurising on the ground by inhibiting micro

switches on the landing gear.
 -

ICE AND RAIN PROTECTION

E-

BY SOBIN SAM
INTRODUCTION
Icing on aircraft in flight is due to
presence of super cooled water
droplets in the atmosphere between
0°C and -40°C.

☐☐
This build up of ice may seriously affect
the aerodynamic properties of the
aircraft.

Below - 40°C/40000 ft, the water

droplets are already frozen and will
not stick to the surface of the
aircraft.

Ice forms on all exposed parts of the

aircraft but apart from increasing the
aircraft weight, it also changes the
aerodynamic characteristics of the wing
resulting in stall at a much higher
airspeed than the pilot anticipates

Effects of icing - Lift i. Drag + CLmax. Stalling speed (Vs )

Sandpaper thick layer of ice can reduce lift by 30% and increase drag by 40%

Areas requiring ice protection - Wing leading edge, slats, Fin leading edge, Propeller,
cockpit windows, pitot and static ports, Engine air
intakes, compressor inlet guide vanes etc.
 Ice detection systems can be split into two groups :-

Ice detection systems which senses a build up of ice

are known as accretion type systems.

SYSTEMS

Ice detection systems which senses by measuring

temperature and humidity when icing conditions are
present are known as inferential type systems.

SYSTEMS

ACCRETION TYPE ICE DETECTION SYSTEMS

ICE DETECTOR HEADS
TEDDINGTON ICE DETECTOR

+8
MAST
This detector consists of an aerofoil
shaped mast protruding into the
airflow and visible from the cockpit.
The mast incorporates a heater
element and a light to illuminate the
mast at night.

When icing conditions are encountered

in flight, ice accumulates on the mast
and gives a direct visual indication of
ice accretion.
 8
The heater may be switched on to
dissipate accumulated ice.

☐
In many modern aircraft, there is no ice warning system or perhaps just the
teddington type ice detector.

SMITHS ICE DETECTOR

The Smiths ice detector consists of a
hollow tube. There are four holes in the
leading edge of the tube and two in the
trailing edge

In normal flight conditions, the air enters

the four front holes more quickly than it
can exit by the rear two. This causes a
pressure build up in the hollow tube which is
sensed by a relay unit.

In icing conditions, the leading edge holes become

blocked by ice and a negative pressure is created
in the hollow tube, causing the relay unit to give
a warning
☐
 ☐
A heater element is fitted around the tube to
dissipate accumulated ice.

MECHANICAL ICE DETECTORS

ENGLISH ELECTRIC (NAPIER) ICE DETECTOR

Its a mechanically operated accretion

type ice detector. In this ice detector,
a serrated rotor shaft is continuously
driven by an electric motor.

The shaft rotates adjacent to a fixed

knife-edge cutter.
☐
Under normal conditions, little torque

☐
is required to drive the rotor.
In icing conditions, ice builds up on the
rotor and is shaved of by the knife
edge cutter. This requires greater
rotational torque. This movement
operates a microswitch which gives an
ice warning.

ROSEMOUNT ICE DETECTOR

This ice detector consists of a short
cylindrical probe mounted on a vibrator
housing which vibrates the probe axially
at about 35 kHz. ☐
 If ice builds up on the probe, the
added mass reduces the frequency of

☐☐
vibration.

When the ice warning is given, a

built in heater element heats the
probe which melts the accumulated
ice allowing the vibrating frequency
to return to normal and the
warning to stop.

BETA PARTICLE ICE DETECTION PROBE

Its the most modern type of ice detector. It has no moving parts.

This ice detector consists of two probes

which are mounted on the forward
fuselage.

☐☐
The forward probe is an emitter which
emits beta particles. The rear probe is a
detector detects detector beta particles.

As beta particles are absorbed by ice,

less particles are sensed by the detector.

At a certain beta particle count rate

corresponding 0.4 mm of ice, a relay unit
in the detector probe will operate
causing a warning on the flight deck.
INFERENTIAL TYPE ICE DETECTION SYSTEMS
ELEMENT ICE SENSING UNIT
SANGAMO WESTON ICE DETECTOR
Ice can only be formed when there is a combination of moisture and freezing
temperatures.
In this ice detector, these two conditions are detected separately. Therefore,
icing conditions are detected rather than actual ice formation.

The system comprises of three main

components :-

• A thermal switch

☐☐
• A moisture sensing head
• A moisture detector controller

The moisture sensing head consists

of two heated metal resistance bulbs
situated in the airflow. They are
arranged in such a way that the
leading bulb shields the rear bulb in a
way that no moisture impinges upon
the rear bulb.
 When the ice detector encounters
moisture in the airflow, the shielded
rear bulb remains dry.

The moisture detector controller

senses the temperature difference
between the wet and the dry bulbs.
☐
When the temperature difference reaches a predetermined value, it will send an
icing condition signal.

The thermal switch is a thermometer which is exposed to ambient temperature.

With a temperature below freezing level, the thermal switch will send an icing
signal.

If both the moisture detector controller and the thermal switch sense icing
conditions, an ice warning will be given or the automatic anti icing or de-icing
cycles will be initiated.

Two approaches to protect aircraft from icing are :-

De-Icing :- • Ice is allowed to accumulate prior to being removed.
• Intermittent application of fluid, heat or mechanical method.

Anti-Icing :- • Objective is to prevent any ice accumulation in the first place.

• Continuous application of fluid or heat.

THREE METHODS USED FOR ICE PROTECTION

• Pneumatic - Using expanding rubber boots. i.e Mechanical (De-icing)
• Thermal - Heat is supplied with the help of electricity, engine oil or hot air.
(De-Icing & Anti-Icing)
• Liquid - Using freezing point depressant (FPD) fluids. (De-Icing & Anti-Icing)
75
MECHANICAL DE-ICING SYSTEM
In this system, pneumatically inflated
boots (rubber boots) are used on the
wing and tail leading edges of some
piston engine aircrafts and some
modern turbo propeller aircrafts.

The de-icing boots are fixed to the leading edges of the surfaces to be protected.
They are made of layers of Natural rubber and rubberised fabric.

FLAT INFLATED

The tubes in the boot sections are inflated by air from an engine-driven vacuum
pump, from a high-pressure reservoir or in the case of some types of turbo-
propeller aircraft, from an engine compressor stage.
The inflation weakens the bond
between the ice and the boot
surfaces, thus removing the ice.

☐
When the system is switched off, the air is sucked from the boots to hold
them flat against the wing and tail leading edges, thus minimising Drag.

DISADVANTAGES OF MECHANICAL DE-ICING :-

Boots disturb airflow over leading edge,

increasing drag.

☐
Boots wear out relatively quickly and are
easily damaged.
☐
THERMAL DE-ICING AND ANTI-ICING SYSTEM

In this system, the surfaces needing

ice protection are heated.

HOT
HOT AIR ELECTRICITY OIL

This heat may be provided by hot air, electricity or hot oil.

Most common method in thermal ice protection is the hot air system.

Bleed Air - Its the fresh, clean, hot high pressure air taken from the
compressor section of the engine before it is mixed with fuel or exhaust
gases.

Ram Air - Its the cool low pressure air which

enters the aircraft. Its taken from the intakes
in the aircraft belly.
METHODS OF SUPPLYING HOT AIR :-
• BLEEDING OF AIR THROUGH TURBINE ENGINE COMPRESSOR

-
Hot air is taken from low and high FAN AIR

pressure compressor stage.

Amount of bleed air taken for ice LOW STAGE AIR

protection is a very small proportion of

the total airflow from the compressor, PRECOOLER

so the effect on engine thrust output

is very small.

Bleed air temperature may be controlled by a precooler using fan air.

• HEATING OF RAM AIR BY PASSING IT THROUGH HEAT EXCHANGER

Heat exchanger unit is positioned so that

the exhaust gases can be diverted to pass
between tubes through which outside air
(ram air) enters the main supply ducts.
☐ (RAM AIR)

• HEATING OF RAM AIR BY COMBUSTION HEATER

☐
Ram air is heated by contact with
combustion chamber walls.
In turbojets, hot air is used for ice
protection.
The system is controlled by flight deck
switches. ☐
ELECTRICAL HEATING SYSTEM
Electrical power required for heating is 3 phase AC.

On propeller driven aircraft, propeller is de-iced by electric heat.

On turbojet aircraft, heat from electricity is used for smaller components such
as windscreens and pitot heads.

The system is controlled by switches on

the flight deck.
When the control switch is placed to ‘ON’
position, the power supply is fed directly
to the continuously heated elements and
via a cyclic timer unit to the
intermittently heated elements.
☐
The cyclic timer controls the current to the intermittently heated elements
depending upon outside air temperature and severity of icing conditions.

The cyclic timer is arranged so that

while the supply is on for some heated
elements it is off for others in order to
maintain a constant de-icing load to the
electrical system.
☐
 Cyclic timer is used in propeller.

FLUID DE-ICING AND ANTI-ICING SYSTEM

(WEEPING WING SYSTEM)
In this system, freezing point depressants (FPD) are used.

Typical system will contain a storage

tank, pump and a network of pipes to

☐
transport the fluid to the required
location.

Distribution panels have porous outer

panels on the leading edge of the
aerofoil.

WINDSCREEN PROTECTION
Windscreens are protected from icing by fluid sprays or electrical heating.

Cabin air may also be blown across the

windscreens for de-misting.

Fluid De-Icing - Wing screen panel is

sprayed with a methyl alcohol based
fluid.
☐☐
 88
Electrical Anti icing - Windscreen heat
is used from takeoff till landing. Heat
increases the flexibility of the screen
and hence the resistance to damage
from bird strikes.

Overheating of windscreen can cause

permanent damage like vinyl bubbling
and discolouration.

PROPELLER PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Ice formation on a propeller blades produce a
distortion to the aerofoil section causing a loss in
propeller efficiency.

It normally uses electrical heating.

Due to its thickness and lower speeds,

the inner third of the propeller blade is
the most susceptible to icing. Hence, it
is always de-iced.

In some installations, the middle third is

also de-iced.
Outer blade is not susceptible to icing, hence not de-iced.

8
Electrical heating elements are usually fitted
in components known as overshoes or
boots.

The electrical power for heating the elements is either high AC or DC.
These systems consume a relatively high amount of electrical power. However, they
are controlled by a cyclic timer which would De-ice the propeller blades one engine
at a time, thus reducing the power requirement.

Slip rings and brushes are components used to transfer electrical power from a
stationary part to a rotating one.
TYPES OF ANTI/DE-ICING FLUIDS

T
I I=
ISO Type ISO Type ISO Type

Unthickened. Thickened. Thickened.

They have high glycol They have minimum glycol They have minimum glycol
content and a low content of approximately content of approximately
viscosity. 50 %. 50 %.

The de-icing performance The thickening agent has This fluid is simlilar in
is good. However, they special properties which both composition and
provide only limited enable the fluid to remain operation to Type II
protection against re- on the aircraft surfaces fluids. However, through
freezing. until take-off. The de-icing the use of advanced
performance is good and thickening systems it is
in addition protection is able to provide longer
provided against re- holdover time than Type
freezing and/or build-up II fluids when used in
of further accretions, concentrated form.
when exposed to freezing
precipitation.

Usually clear. Straw coloured. Green in colour.

METHODS OF TREATMENT
COLD FLUID SPRAY
A cold fluid spray is the simplest method of applying de-icing fluid.
In very severe conditions, one sprayed application of cold fluid may be sufficient
to remove all the ice and snow. Brushing or rubbing thickly iced areas is usually
necessary.
As the ice and snow melts, the fluid is diluted, becomes less effective and is prone
to freezing again quite quickly.

HOT FLUID SPRAY

Many airline operators have adopted a hot fluid spraying system which was
developed specifically to reduce turnaround times and to inhibit the bonding of
ice and snow to aircraft surfaces for a period of time.

The fluid is normally sprayed on at a temperature of 70 °C and a pressure of

700 kN/m2.

HOT WATER DE-ICING

Hot water de-icing should not be carried out at temperatures below -7°C.
• Step 1 - Snow and ice is initially removed with a jet of hot water at a maximum
temperature of 95°C.
• Step 2 - A light coating of de-icing fluid is then immediately applied to the
aircraft to prevent re-freezing.

The second step must be performed within three minutes of the beginning of the
first step.
AIRCRAFT OXYGEN EQUIPMENT

☐
INTRODUCTION
In order for the body to function satisfactorily it requires oxygen which it
extracts from oxygenated blood provided by the lungs.

Lack of oxygen in body is known as Hypoxia.

OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS TO PREVENT HYPOXIA

I
Altitude Oxygen requirements

Below 10000 ft Normal breathing will provide

adequate oxygen to combat
hypoxia

10000 ft - 33700 ft Cabin air Oxygen

33700 ft - 40000 ft 100% oxygen

Above 40000 ft 100 % oxygen under pressure

TIME OF USEFUL CONSCIOUSNESS
It is the time available for a pilot/flight engineer to recognize the development
of hypoxia and do something about it.

SUPPLEMENTAL OXYGEN
Supplemental oxygen is oxygen which is used to allow the crew and passengers
to breathe normally at altitudes they would not otherwise be able to do so
without the onset of hypoxia.

Supplemental oxygen requirements are as follows :-

☐
DILUTER DEMAND SUPPLEMENTAL OXYGEN SYSTEM (Flight crew use)

Flight deck crew supplemental oxygen is

stored in high pressure gas cylinders.

Oxygen is stored in the cylinders at 1800 psi.

☐☐☐
This pressure of 1800 psi is reduced to a
suitable value for use by the pressure
reducing valve.

Oxygen pressure indication is provided for

the crew by a gauge on the flight deck.

If the pressure inside the oxygen cylinder becomes excessive, the cylinder is
vented to the atmosphere via a safety disc.
Indication of this fact is given by discharge indicator located on the outer skin
of the aircraft.

In the event of a discharge due to

excessive pressure, the green disc will be
ejected leaving red painted area visible.
 Flow indicator indicates that oxygen is
flowing through the regulator.

FLOW INDICATOR
• Blank - No oxygen flow.
• White/yellow - Oxygen is flowing.
☐ DILUTER DEMAND REGULATOR
With the oxygen supply ‘ON’ and ‘NORMAL’ oxygen selected, diluted oxygen will be
supplied to the crew member’s mask as he/she inhales.

As the cabin altitude increases and cabin air pressure decreases the percentage
oxygen increases until, at 32 000 ft cabin altitude, 100% oxygen is supplied.

The diluter demand system supplies oxygen on demand. There are three options
depending on pilot selection :-

• Normal - Oxygen + Cabin Air

• Emergency - 100% Oxygen at positive pressure
• Test - Oxygen at a high positive pressure is supplied to check masks and other
equipment for leakage.

QUICK DONNING MASKS

Quick donning masks are provided

☐
to flight crew on all aircraft with
maximum operating altitude above
25,000 ft.

The mask must be capable of being

fitted with one hand with a
maximum time of five seconds.
CONTINUOUS FLOW SUPPLEMENTAL OXYGEN SYSTEM
(Passengers and cabin crew use)
In this system, once a flow to the mask is initiated, it will continue whether
someone is breathing the oxygen or not.
Passengers have to pull the oxygen mask towards their face for oxygen supply to
start.
Oxygen for the passengers and the cabin crew can be supplied either by a gaseous
system or a chemical generator system.

Ways to drop the oxygen masks to the half hung position :-

• GASEOUS SYSTEM
Its operated pneumatically by oxygen pressure.

☐☐
The doors of the passenger oxygen units are opened automatically by a
barometrically controlled release mechanism the if cabin altitude reaches
14000 ft.

• CHEMICAL GENERATOR SYSTEM

The doors are opened by electrical solenoids.

Besides these methods, the doors can also be opened by manual selection by
the flight crew at any altitude.

Basically, passenger oxygen masks will drop down if selected barometrically/

electrically/manually.
CHEMICAL GENERATOR SYSTEM

Chemical oxygen generators are used on

most modern aircrafts.

They are relatively light self-contained

devices and are located in each passenger,
cabin attendants and lavatory service
units.
☐
Oxygen is generated by the
chemical reaction of sodium
chlorate (NaClO3) and iron (Fe).

A filter in the generator removes

any contaminants and cools the
oxygen to a temperature not
exceeding 10°C above cabin ambient
☐
temperature.
Firing mechanism - When the mask is pulled down, the cord operates an electrical
switch which ignites the sodium chlorate and iron powder charge block.

The generator provides a low pressure continuous oxygen supply for 15 mins.
Oxygen must be provided for a minimum of 10 mins.

The oxygen output from the masks are always

greater than the amount required from the
passengers. ☐
 Once the chemical reaction is started
it cannot be stopped. The chemical
reaction produces a lot of heat.

A strip of heat sensitive paint on the

chemical generator changes colour
from Orange to black.
☐
When the generator is used, the colour change provides a visual indication that
the chemical generator needs to be replaced.

PORTABLE OXYGEN SYSTEMS

First aid and portable oxygen cylinders

are installed at suitable locations in
the passenger cabin.

They consist of a cylinder containing

normally 120 litres of oxygen at a
pressure of 1800 psi.
☐
At
Cylinder Quantity Requirement type Litres/min Time they would
(Litres) (Rate) last (minutes)

120 Normal 2 60

120 High 4 30

120 Emergency 10 12
CREW PROTECTIVE BREATHING EQUIPMENT (PBE)
Standard portable oxygen bottles can be used by the crew to enable them to
move about the cabin during reduced cabin pressure situations.

But for use when harsh environmental

conditions exist portable sets with a
full face smoke mask will be used.

PBE must protect eyes, nose and mouth

of the wearer and provide oxygen for a
minimum duration of 15 mins.
☐
This protection is provided by smoke hoods.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
To leak test an oxygen system, use acid free soap and distilled water.

Lubrication of oxygen component thread

done by graphite.
☐
Dangerous oxygen pressure in cylinders is relieved by bursting discs.

Oxygen cylinders are identified by their colours.

☐ ☐
American and European Oxygen British oxygen cylinders are black
cylinders are green. with a white neck.
EMERGENCY SYSTEMS & EQUIPMENT

☐
INTRODUCTION
All equipment must be readily accessible
for emergency use. The location of the
equipment must be obvious, directly
accessible and protected from
inadvertent damage.

☐☐☐
MEGAPHONE
These are located at strategic points in
the cabin e.g. front and rear, upper and
lower decks. They are primarily for use
by the crew during an emergency
evacuation.

They are battery powered and must be

checked prior to flight.

This check is carried out by pressing the

transmit switch and listening for an
audible “click” or the illumination of a
green neon light on the megaphone body.

l-
Number of megaphone Passenger seats available

1 61-99

2 100 or more
TORCHES
It is a legal requirement that torches are carried on public transport aircraft.
These are positioned at each crew station including the flight deck.

They are battery operated and cannot be recharged by the aircraft electrical supply.

Red neon light flashing on the body of

the torch gives indication of battery

☐
condition.
Condition good - Red neon light flashes
every 10 seconds.
Battery needs to be changed - Red neon
light doesn’t flash every 10 seconds or is
not flashing at all.

LIFE JACKETS

Life jackets are normally packed in special

packages. Stowage in this manner will
ensure jacket is correctly folded for

☐☐
ensuring easy and rapid fitting if required
for use.

The normal stowage is under the seat for

passengers. Passenger life jackets are
normally coloured yellow for identification.

The jacket is inflated with carbon dioxide

which is stored under pressure in a small
cylinder which is released manually by
operation of a red toggle or lever.
A standby method of inflation by mouth is available through an oral inflation tube.
The survival locator light is usually powered by a salt water activated battery.
A life jacket will usually have a whistle attached to it for attracting attention and
lifeline to enable survivors to tie themselves together.

Crew jackets are coloured yellow SIGNAL STREAMER

or flame red with the word crew
printed on it.
HELIOGRAPH
They may also have a number of
other survival items fitted like :-

☐☐
• Heliograph (signal mirror) SHARK
PLB
REPELLANT

• Signal streamer
• Shark repellant
• Personal locator beacon (PLB)

When switched ON, PLB will transmit on

international civil aviation distress
frequencies of 406 and 121.5 MHz and
possibly on the military distress
frequency of 243 MHz.

It may also have a speech transmission

and reception facility on 121.5 MHz.
It also transmits GPS position.
RAFTS/DINGHIES

as
Sufficient life rafts must be
carried to accommodate all the
occupants of the aircraft if one
raft of the largest capacity is
lost.

Many large aircraft utilise their escape slides

as survival rafts (slide rafts), each of which
can accommodate upto 60 people.

In aircrafts without slides or in which

slides cannot be used as rafts, stand
alone life rafts will be carried. Normally,
30 people can be carried in such life

☐☐
rafts.

LOCATOR BEACONS

The survival locator beacon is a self buoyant

(able to stay afloat on water) radio distress
beacon.
The beacon has the following features :-

☐☐☐
The beacon is operated by pulling on the red release
toggle which would release the straps holding the
aerial.

Releasing the straps will allow the aerial to spring to the

vertical position and switch on the radio transmitter.

A neon lamp on top of the beacon will continuously

flash indicating that the beacon is transmitting.
 There is worldwide satellite coverage on 406
MHz frequency using the SARSAT (satellite

☐
aided search and rescue) system

Once the beacon is activated, the message

will be with the rescue services within 10
minutes. The beacons position will be
known within a radius of 2.6 nm.

Some newer beacons also have GPS information embedded in them and will transmit
their exact position.

FIRST AID KITS

1¥
There are 3 sets of first aid equipment
normally carried in larger aircrafts known as
first aid kits, emergency medical kits and life
raft first aid kits.
ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT
FIRE PROOF GLOVES

05
A pair of Fire-proof gloves are usually
stowed on the flight deck for use in
handling overheated equipment

They are normally made of Nomex with

silver heat resistance coating.

CRASH AXES OR CROWBAR

They are used for levering and lifting hot

panels or access doors to fight a fire
behind them with a handheld fire
extinguisher.

An aeroplane with a maximum take off mass exceeding 5700 kgs or having a
maximum approved seating capacity of more than 9 seats must have at least
one crash axe or crowbar on the flight deck.

If maximum approved seating configuration is more than 200, an additional

crash axe or crowbar must be carried and located in or near the most
rearward galley area.
EMERGENCY EXITS
For a large aeroplane to be certified,

☐
it must be demonstrated that all
occupants including passengers and
crew can be evacuated from the
aeroplane using half the exits in the
dark in 90 seconds or less.

Emergency exits may be passenger doors

or removable panels or hatches.

For flight crew, it may be a direct vision

window at either side of the flight deck
or a roof hatch.
☐
All emergency exits except the pilot windows
must be openable both from inside and

☐☐
outside the aeroplane.

To aid identification, all emergency exits must

be outlined externally by a 5 cm band in
contrasting colours.
The emergency slides are stowed in the
compartment in the bottom inner face
of the passenger doors.
☐
The door slides have a retaining bar known as
girt bar.

☐
The girt bar maybe in one of two positions.

☐
It maybe either fixed to the cabin floor or
free to move with rest of the side.
It is the position of the girt bar which
determines whether the slide will open
or not when the door opens.

If the door is opened with the girt bar

attached to the floor, the slide will
open and will be inflated by the
automatic inflation system. ☐
 8
If the door is opened with the girt bar free to
move with the slide, then the slide will remain
in its container.

In the event that the emergency exits are

blocked or are unable to be opened, a
supplementary escape route which can be
broken from outside the aircraft must be
available. They are known as Cut In Areas.

They are rectangular in shape, marked by right

angled corners and red or yellow in colour and
outlined in white if a contrast is required.

Cut In Areas are not weak points on the

fuselage structure, but areas under which
no control runs, electrical looms or multi
stringers exist.
EMERGENCY LIGHTING
Emergency lighting comprises of flight deck lighting, cabin internal and external
lighting.

Emergency lighting must have an independent power supply. To achieve this

emergency lights are battery operated.

The batteries are normally of the nickel

☐
cadmium type.

The Ni-Cad batteries are kept fully charged

by the aircraft’s electrical system.

Battery must be able to maintain emergency lights at full brightness for a minimum
of 10 minutes.

Emergency lighting must include :-

• General cabin illumination
General cabin illumination may be provided
by the white lights in the ceiling along the
aisles and at the emergency exit locations.

• Internal lighting in floor level emergency exit areas

There may also be white lights located

low down on side of the passenger
seats to illuminate the escape paths.
• Illuminated emergency exit markings and location signs

-07
Exit location signs must have red letters on a white electrically illuminated or
self illuminated background.

• Floor proximity emergency escape path markings in the passenger compartment

Floor proximity emergency escape path

illumination must be provided when
other means of illumination are more
than 4 feet above the cabin aisle floor
to enable passengers to leave their seats,

☐☐
visually identify escape routes and exits.

• Exterior emergency lighting at all passenger emergency exits

There must be exterior lighting at all

emergency exits such that the escape
routes from the exit to the point on
the ground where the evacuee takes
his first step is illuminated.
Emergency lighting system is controlled by two switches :-

• Flight deck switch

☐
• Passenger cabin adjacent to cabin crew
station.
FIRE & SMOKE DETECTION AND
PROTECTION

☐
BY SOBIN SAM
INTRODUCTION
A fire to exist, 3 things being should be present, which are heat, fuel and oxygen.
This is known as triangle of fire.

☐☐
Fire in an aircraft is extremely dangerous. Hence, to protect the aircraft, the crew
and the passengers, the aircraft must have fire detection and extinguishing systems
fitted in all areas where potential fire risk may exist.

Designated fire zones :-

• Engines
• APU (Auxiliary power unit)
• Wheel wells
• Cargo compartments

Engines and the auxiliary power unit are

isolated by firewall made of stainless
steel or titanium, which contain any
fire to the immediate area and prevent
it from spreading to the rest of the
aircraft.
FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS
MELTING LINK DETECTORS
They’re found in older aircraft and consists of a pair of contacts held apart by a
fusible plug.
At a predetermined temperature the fusible plug melts allowing the contacts to
close and a fire warning is given.
A major drawback with this detector is that the contacts will not open after the
fire has been extinguished, thus giving a permanent fire warning.

DIFFERENTIAL EXPANSION DETECTORS

This type of detector operates on the principle of the differential rate of

expansion of dissimilar materials.
They consist of a pair of contacts mounted on a spring bow assembly, fitted
within an expansion tube mounted on a base.
When heat is applied, the tube expands at a greater rate than the bow, drawing
the contacts together and providing a Fire Warning.
A subsequent drop in temperature will cause the tube to shorten, the contacts
to open and the warning to be cancelled.
 This type of unit is often used as a monitor
on Engine Cooling Air Outlets to provide
Internal Engine Overheat (IEOH) warning.

CONTINUOUS FIRE DETECTORS

These detectors are commonly known as Fire Wire Free From False Detection (FFFD).
A detector unit consists of a stainless steel tube, with a central electrode
insulated from the tube by a temperature sensitive material.
The fire wire detectors work on the principle of their core material either having
either a negative coefficient of resistance or a positive coefficient of capacitance.
(one system has both).
In the resistive type,
as T Ttt
R I and it will give
out a fire warning.
If the temperature drops below
a preset value the system will
automatically reset.

In the case of the resistive type,

a short circuit between the outer
case and the inner electrode will
give out a false fire warning.

In the capacitive type,

as T Ttt
C I and it will give
out a fire warning.
If the temperature drops below
a preset value the system will
automatically reset.

In the case of the capacitive type,

a short circuit between the outer
case and the inner electrode will
result in the capacitance falling to
zero and will not give out a false
fire warning.
 Fire wires are positioned around engine fire zones in a continuous double loop,
both loops having to detect a fire to initiate the warning.

GAS FILLED DETECTORS

This system consists of a continuous stainless steel tube containing a central

core which gives out hydrogen gas when heated to a high temperature.
During the manufacturing process, helium gas is forced into the tube under
pressure and the tube is then sealed.
When the gas filled detector tube is heated locally by the flame, the helium
pressure may not increase sufficiently to trigger a warning. However, hydrogen
gas is released from the core material and the pressure in the tube will build up
closing the alarm switch, giving out a fire warning.

In the event of a hot gas leak, the temperature increase will be less than
that caused by a flame, but it will be felt over a larger area. This increase in
temperature maybe insufficient to cause the release of the hydrogen gas,
but will cause sufficient increase in the pressure of the helium gas to close
the alarm switch and initiate fire warning.
 If the tube is damaged and the helium gas is released, the pressure will fall, opening
the integrity switch, giving out a fault indication.

Like the fire wire this system is positioned around the fire zones in a double loop,
once again both loops need to detect a fire to give a warning.

FIRE TEST AND FIRE WARNING INDICATIONS

Fire detection systems can be tested from the flight deck.

Flight deck indication of a fire warning is

steady red light for each engine and a
common warning bell.
FIXED FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEM

Fixed fire extinguishers system normally

comprises of fire bottles filled with the
fire extinguishing agent under pressure
connected via a piping to the fires
zones. ☐
Each engine must have two fire extinguishers, each of which is capable of
extinguishing engine fire.

If pressure inside the fire bottle becomes

excessive due to it being exposed to high
temperature, its contents will be discharged
overboard through a thermal discharge port
before the pressure inside the bottle
becomes such that the bottle explodes.
☐
In this case, the bottle pressure gauge will
read zero.

On some aircrafts, when bottle pressure

gauges are not readily visible to the crew on
external inspection, indicator discs connected
to the thermal discharge ports are fitted
externally in a position where they are easily
visible.
☐☐
 Basically, indicator discs indicate whether the contents of the fire bottles have
discharged overboard or not. (due excessive pressure)

Two ways of indication of thermal discharge :-

• Green disc will be ejected showing a red

disc below it.

OR

• Red disc will be ejected, the absence of

which will indicate a thermal discharge.

FIRE EXTINGUISHER TYPES

☐☐
ON BOARD FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

*¥.Eda DRY
POWDER
BCF (Bromochlorodifluromethane/Halon 1211)
• It is stored in signal red, purple, brown or green containers.
• It is very effective against electrical and flammable liquid fires.
• Only slightly toxic, colours and non-corrosive.
• Evaporates rapidly leaving no residue.
• Does not freeze or cause cold burns.
• Prevents re-ignition.
• At least one BCF fire extinguishers should be present on the flight deck.

BTM (Bromotrifluromethane/Halon 1301)

• It is stored in grey containers.
• Has very low toxicity.
• It is used for the protection of APUs, power plants and cargo compartments.

BCF and BTM are part of a group of halogenated hydrocarbons called as Freon.

WATER/WATER GLYCOL
• It is stored in red containers.
• It is used in passenger cabins for combatting fires involving domestic materials.
• It must not be used on fires which involve electrical equipment or liquids.

Glycol is an antifreeze agent which permit operation of the extinguishers at

temperatures as low as -20°C.
DRY CHEMICAL (Dry powder)
• It is stored in a blue or red container with a blue label.
• It is best known for its application against wheel and brake fires.
• It should not be used on electrical fires.

GROUND FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

It is used by personnel on ground for extinguishing aircraft fires.
CARBON DIOXIDE
• It is stored in black or red containers with a black label.
• It is mainly used against engine fires.

☐
FOAM
• It is used on flammable liquid fires including liquid butane and

☐
propane.

SAND
• It is used on metal fires. E.g - Magnesium,Titanium.

☐
NO. OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

☐☐
AUXILIARY POWER UNIT PROTECTION
Auxiliary Power Units (APUs) are small gas turbine engines used primarily during
aircraft ground operation to provide electric power, air conditioning etc and to
start the main engines.

APUs may be available for airborne use in case of emergency.

It is permissible to run the APU unmonitored.

For this reason there is a self monitoring
system which shuts the APU down in case of
a major failure, including fire.
SMOKE DETECTION
Areas where smoke detection systems are fitted :-
• Cargo and baggage compartments.
• Electrical Equipment bay.
• Toilets.

Smoke detection works on two principles :-

OPTICAL

II
It uses light sensors.
It is very good at detecting low heat smouldering types of fire with lots of visible
smoke.
It is used in cargo compartments and electrical equipment Bay (Avionics Bay).

IONISATION

It uses a small amount of radioactive materials.

It is good at detecting high heat fires where smoke particles are small.
It is used in toilets.
 Toilet fire extinguisher is in the waste bin.

☐
CLASSIFICATION OF CARGO COMPARTMENTS
CLASS A
It is used for storage of crew luggage.
They provide for visual detection of
smoke.
There is a fire extinguisher available. ☐
CLASS B
Sufficient access provided while in
flight to enable a member of the
crew to reach effectively to all
parts of the compartment with a
hand held extinguisher.

Combi type aircrafts are Class B where

passengers are seated in the same deck
as freight.

CLASS C
It must have a built-in fire
extinguishing system controllable
from the cockpit.
Most passenger aircrafts underfloor
baggage and freight compartments
are Class C.
☐☐
 CLASS D
No longer used.

CLASS E

8
Cargo aircrafts have Class E.
Equipped with a separate system of
an approved type of smoke or fire
detector.

Means provided to shut off the

ventilating airflow to or within the
compartment.

Means provided to exclude hazardous quantities of smoke, flames, or noxious

gases from entering the cockpit.

Cargo compartment fire detectors are usually fitted in pairs to prevent spurious
warnings.

CLASSES OF FIRE
FI
AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION

8
Aircraft piston engines use gasoline and gas turbine engines use kerosene. Both
of these fuel are produced from crude oil.

The required fuel is extracted from crude oil by distillation process.

The heavy oils condense out first and are collected near the bottom.
The process then continues up through the tower. Kerosene and gasoline are
relatively light and are taken out near the top.
 Ideal fuel characteristics :-
• Ease of flow under all operating conditions.
• Complete combustion under all conditions.
• High calorific value.
• Non-corrosive.
• No damage to the engine from combustion by-products.
• Low fire hazard.
• Ease of engine starting.
• Lubricity.

Thy
Calorific value - The calorific value is the total energy released as heat when a
substance undergoes complete combustion.

Lubricity - It’s the measure of the reduction in friction and or wear by a

lubricant.

Flash point - It’s the lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off vapor to
form an ignitable mixture in air.
The lower the flash point, the easier it is to ignite the material.

PISTON ENGINE FUELS

AVGAS (Aviation Gasoline)
Aviation gasoline is graded by octane rating. Octane rating is the resistance to
detonation when subjected to high temperature and pressure.

A fuel’s octane rating is checked in a

test engine with the air:fuel mixture
weak and with it rich.

This gives the fuel two octane ratings.

The weak figure is used in fuel’s name.
 lift
For e.g, AVGAS 100 is a 100 octane fuel
when mixture is weak and 130 octane
when mixture is rich.

These two octane rating together is

known as the fuel’s performance
index/no.

Most popular grades of AVGAS readily available today are :-

GRADE PERFORMANCE NO. COLOUR S.G ( ) Lead content

AVGAS 100 LL 100/130 Blue 0.72 Low Lead

AVGAS 100 100/130 Green 0.72 High Lead

AVGAS 115 115/145 Green 0.72 High Lead

Higher octane fuels are used with high performance engines having high
compression ratios.

MOGAS (Motor Gasoline)

MOGAS (motor gasoline) can sometimes be used in certain airframe engine
combinations but are rarely used due to its low octane rating.

Because of its higher volatility, carburettor icing and vapour locking is much
more likely.
GAS TURBINE ENGINE FUELS
Gas turbine engined aircraft use kerosene fuels.
AVTUR (Aviation Turbine Fuel)
It’s used in civilian aircraft. There are two types of Aviation turbine fuels :-
JET A1
• This is a kerosene type fuel with a nominal SG of 0.8 at 15°C.
• Flash point : 38° C
• Waxing point : -47° C
JET A
• This is a similar type of fuel with the same SG and flash point.
• Waxing point : -40° C
• This fuel is normally only available in the USA.

AVTAG (Aviation Turbine Gasoline)

JET B
• This is a wide-cut gasoline/kerosene mix type fuel with a nominal SG of 0.77 at
15°C.
• Flash point : -20° C
• Waxing point : -60° C
JET B can be used as an alternative to JET A1 but is not generally used in civilian
aircraft.

Gas turbine fuels are not dyed for identiication, they retain their natural colour
which can range between a straw yellow to completely colourless.
CLOUDY FUEL

:
If a fuel sample appears cloudy/hazy it
probably has air/water in it.

If the cloudiness appears to rise quite

rapidly towards the top of the sample
then air is present.

If the cloud falls quite slowly towards the bottom of the sample then water is
present in the fuel.
A cloudy appearance usually indicates the presence of water.

JET FUEL ADDITIVES

FSII (Fuel System Icing Inhibitor)
A certain amount of water is present in all fuel. FSII contains an icing inhibitor
and a fungal suppressant to combat the following problems :-
Icing
FSII is used in aviation fuels with the main objective of preventing the ice
formation in fuel lines.
Aviation jet fuels can contain some dissolved or free water; this is the reason
of the risk of ice formation at high altitudes.

Fungal Growth and Corrosion

A microbiological fungus called
Cladasporium Resinae is present in all
turbine fuels.
This fungus grows rapidly in the
presence of water to form long green
filaments which can block fuel system
components.
 The waste products of the fungus are corrosive, especially to fuel tank sealing
substances.

8
Jet A1 has FSII while Jet A does not.

HITEC (Lubricity Agent)

A lubricity agent is added to the fuel to reduce wear in the fuel system
components.

STATIC DISSIPATOR
Static dissipater additives partially eliminate the hazards of static electricity
generated by the movement of fuel through modern high flow rate fuel
transfer systems, particularly during refuelling and defuelling.
 CORROSION INHIBITORS
Corrosion inhibitors protect ferrous metals in fuel handling systems, such as
pipelines and storage tanks from corrosion.
Certain of these corrosion inhibitors appear to improve the lubricating qualities
(lubricity) of some gas turbine engine fuels.

METAL DEACTIVATOR
Metal de-activators suppress the catalytic effect which some metals, particularly
copper have on fuel oxidation.

WATER IN THE FUEL

Water is always present in fuel, the amount will vary according to the efficiency
of the manufacturer’s quality control and the preventive measures taken during
storage and transfer.

Following further measures can be taken to minimize water accretion once the
fuel has been transferred to the aircraft tanks :-

WATER DRAINS

As water is heavier than fuel, it will

☐
fall to the bottom of the tank.

The water can then be drained off

via the water drain valve.

Water in the fuel tank is removed via a drain valve at the lowest point in the tank.
FUEL HEATER
A fuel heater is provided in gas
turbine engine aircraft fuel systems

☐
to prevent water in the fuel
freezing and blocking fuel filters.

The fuel is passed through a heat

exchanger utilizing hot compressor
delivery air to remove any ice
crystals which may have formed
while the fuel was exposed to the
very low temperatures experienced at high altitudes.

Some systems also utilise a fuel

cooled oil cooler(fcoc). During flight,
the cold fuel cools the hot oil and at
the same time the oil warms up the
fuel to prevent freezing.
☐
ATMOSPHERIC EXCLUSION
Once the fuel is in the aircraft fuel
tanks, the main source of water
contamination is the atmosphere
that remains within the tank.

If the tanks are topped up to full

then the atmosphere is excluded
together with the moisture it
contains, thus minimizing the
likelihood that the fuel will be
contaminated.
☐
 Caution is required here, filling up the
tanks may prove an embarrassment
the next day if the ambient
temperature rises as the volume of
the fuel in the tank will increase and
there is the danger that it may spill
out of the vent system.
☐
FUEL BOILING
The temperature at which a liquid boils
reduces as the pressure on its surface
reduce.
As an aircraft climbs, the pressure on the
surface of the fuel reduces and with that
reduction comes an increased likelihood
that the fuel will boil and form vapour in
the pipelines.
☐
The vapour locks that this effect cause will effectively cut off the fuel supply to
the engine with the inevitable result that the engine will stop.

-0
Fuel booster pumps fitted inside the tanks
can overcome this problem by pressurizing
the fuel in the pipelines from the tank to
the engine, pushing fuel towards the
engine rather than engine driven pumps
sucking fuel from the tanks, further
reducing pressure.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific Gravity = Weight of the liquid
Weight of an equal volume of water
The specific gravity of a liquid varies inversely with its temperature.
AIRCRAFT FUEL STORAGE SYSTEM
The fuel is carried in the aircraft within tanks can be integral, rigid or flexible.
INTEGRAL TANKS

i
Integral tanks are sealed during
manufacture to provide large volume
storage.

These tanks are inside the wings, the

centre section and depending upon type,
inside the horizontal stabilizer.

All modern large passenger aircraft will have this type of tank.

RIGID TANKS

Rigid tank is a sealed metal container mounted in the aircraft wing or fuselage.
It’s simple but does add extra weight and requires mounting structure. Most
popular on light aircraft. E.g Cessna 172.
FLEXIBLE TANKS
Flexible tanks are bags made of sealed
rubberized fabric, sometimes referred

☐
to as fuel bladders or bag tanks.

This type of tank requires structure

inside the aircraft to attach and
support it.

They are typically mounted inside the wing or fuselage, more popular on military
aircraft as they can be effectively self-sealing in the event of battle damage
occurring.

SIMPLE LIGHT AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEMS

These aircraft may use a gravity feed system or one using a pressure pump.

GRAVITY FED FUEL SYSTEM

Many high wing aircraft like the
C172 are normally designed to be

☐
gravity fed systems.
As the fuel tank is inside the wing
which is located above the engine,
gravity can naturally pull the fuel
from the tank to the engine.

Although in normal operations of fuel pump is not required, many high wing
aircrafts are still equipped with some sort of fuel pump, engine driven,
electrically powered or both as a backup for emergency operations.
 PRESSURE FED FUEL SYSTEM

Ee
In low wing aircraft such the the
Piper Arrow, a fuel pump is required
to send the fuel from the tanks to
the engine.

Since the fuel is located below the engine, it is simply impossible for gravity to
send the fuel upwards. For this reason, long wing airplanes are designed with a
fuel pump system.

Normally there are two fuel pumps, one of the fuel pumps is engine driven and
the backup electrically driven.

FUEL PRIMING

Airflow through a carburettor during engine start is not enough for fuel to
come out of the jet which makes it difficult to fire up, particularly with cold
starts.

The fuel primer allows the fuel to be injected directly into the cylinder intake
manifold prior to engine start, where the fuel the vaporizes and this procedure
helps to cold start the engine.
 It has to be made sure that the primer is locked after use. If not it will cause a
very rich mixture at idle and rough running. Black smoke from the exhaust is an
indication of overpriming.

MULTI-ENGINE AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEMS

Multi-engine aircraft have more complex fuel systems to cope with the extra
requirements for altitude and engine coniguration. The fuel tanks are invariably
integral tanks and are in the wings.
The system will include the following :-
VENT SYSTEM

08
The vent system helps to equalise
the air pressure above the fuel in
the tanks to that of the ambient
pressure.

The fuel tanks are connected by a pipe

line to vent surge tanks. The surge
tanks has an orifice to the atmosphere.
To make the vents work, the tanks of
airplanes are partly filled, usually 2% of
the tanks are kept empty.

Any fuel overlowing into the vent system is

collected by the vent/surge tank and recycled
back to the main tanks.
The tanks are vented/pressurised to allow air
into the tank to take the place of burned fuel,
otherwise a vacuum will be created in the tank.

A vacuum is the absence of pressure. If there is no pressure internally, there

is no force to combat atmospheric pressure which would result in engine
fuel starvation and the fuel tank collapsing.
FILTERS (Screens)

TI
Filters are used to prevent any debris in the
tank being drawn into the
booster pumps.

BOOSTER PUMPS
Booster pumps are normally fitted
in pairs in each tank to pump fuel
from the tank to the engine. They
are a necessity in high altitude
aircraft to prevent cavitation/low
pressure boiling of the fuel.

Booster pumps are centrifugal pumps driven by AC motors.

They may also be a suction feed pipe to allow the engine driven fuel pump to
draw fuel from the tanks in the event of a double booster pump failure.

COLLECTOR TANK (FEEDER BOX)

The booster pumps are fitted in a
collector tank or feeder box which

☐
always holds a measured quantity of fuel
to allow the pumps to be continually
submerged in fuel thereby preventing
pump cavitation due to attitude changes
of the aircraft which could cause the
pumps to be uncovered.
CROSS-FEED AND SHUT-OFF VALVES
Cross-feed valve enables the fuel to ENGINE FUEL SHUT-OFF VALVES

be fed from any tank to any engine

whereas Shut-off valves isolates the
engine in the event of a fault or
emergency.

HIGH AND LOW LEVEL FLOAT SWITCHES OR LEVEL SENSORS

High level switches are used to
automatically close the refuel valve

☐
when the tank is full (automatic top
off) during refuelling and the low
level switches are used to maintain a
required minimum fuel in the main
tanks during fuel jettison or
dumping.

FUEL DRAINS

☐
Each fuel tank will have a fuel drain at
the lowest point in the tank to allow
water to be drained from the tank.

OVERPRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

In the event of the fuel tank being over
pressurized due to a malfunction a relief
valve may be incorporated to prevent
structural damage to the tank.
☐
 BAFFLES

☐
Baffles are fitted in the tanks to dampen
rapid movement of fuel (surging or
sloshing) during manoeuvring.

FUEL JETTISON

☐
Fuel Jettison, more commonly referred
to as Fuel Dumping, is the intentional,
controlled, jettison of fuel from an
aircraft whilst in flight.

If an aircraft’s Maximum landing weight is less than its the maximum takeoff
weight, a situation could occur in which a landing might be necessary before
sufficient fuel has burned off to lighten the aircraft. A Fuel Dumping system
may be required on these aircraft to allow fuel to be jettisoned in flight to
avoid structural damage caused by landing the aircraft when it is too heavy.

In most conditions, an altitude of 5000ft to 6000ft AGL is sufficient for the

jettisoned fuel to evaporate before reaching the ground.

FUEL QUANTITY MEASUREMENT

There are two methods of measuring fuel quantity :-
MEASURING VOLUME BY VARYING A RESISTANCE

As the fuel level decreases resistance

☐
increases, this leads to a reduction of
current in the circuit. Hence the
indication on the ammeter decreases.
 The gauge is calibrated to show the correct fuel quantity when the aircraft
is in straight and level flight. This system is restricted to light aircraft.

DISADVANTAGES

• It is subjected to manoeuvring error.

When the aircraft’s attitude changes,
the indicated fuel quantity will change.

☐
• This type of system cannot compensate
for the change in specific gravity (density)
of the fuel. So, as the fuel gets colder, the
indicated quantity will be decreased and vice
versa should the fuel temperature increase. ☐
MEASURING WEIGHT/MASS BY VARYING CAPACITANCE
This method is used in modern passenger aircrafts and does not suffer from
manoeuvring error and can compensate for variations of density.

The capacitive method works by

supplying the two plates of a

☐
capacitor with AC.

The current that flows in the circuit

now depends on four factors, the level
of voltage applied, the frequency of the
supply, the size of the plates and the
dielectric constant of the material
separating the plates.
 Ff
In our circuit three of these factors
are fixed and the fourth, the dielectric
constant, is variable because the
dielectric consists of fuel and air. The
higher the level of fuel in the tank the
more fuel and less air will be in the
capacitor probe, and vice versa.

A dielectric of fuel will allow

more current to pass through
the circuit giving a greater
indication on the gauge than
the dielectric of air.

To compensate for change in aircraft

attitude the capacitive system may
have many capacitor probes in the
tank connected in parallel to ‘average’
the measurement of the fuel in the
tank. This enables the system to give
an accurate indication irrespective of
the aircraft attitude.

If a capacitive gauging system fails, it does so in a manner to draw the

attention of the user. A fail-safe circuit is incorporated which drives the
gauge pointer slowly towards the empty position in order to prevent the
indicator showing that there is more fuel in the tank than there actually is.
 Some systems also incorporate a test switch utilizing the fail-safe circuit, when
the test switch is operated, the indication moves towards empty and when the
switch is released the pointer should move back to its original position.

FUEL SYSTEM INSTRUMENTATION

The below figure shows a typical Airbus Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring
(ECAM) system display. A Boeing Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (EICAS)
would be a similar display.

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AIRCRAFT REFUELING
Before fuelling an aircraft, fuelling zones should be established. These zones will
extend at least 6 m (20 feet) radially from the filling and venting points on the
aircraft and the fuelling equipment.

Within these zones the following restrictions apply :-

• There should be no smoking.
• If the APU stops for any reason during fuelling, it should not be started again
until fuelling has ceased and there is no danger of igniting the fuel vapours.
• Ground power units, (GPUs) should be located as far away as practical from
the fuelling zones and not be connected or disconnected while fuelling is in
progress.

• Fire extinguishers should be located so as to be readily accessible.

REFUELLING WITH PASSENGERS ON BOARD

• It is not permissible to refuel fixed wing aircraft with less than 20 seats while
passengers remain on board.
• Passengers should disembark if wide-cut fuels (e.g. Jet B) are being used.
• Passengers should disembark whenever AVGAS is involved.
• One qualified person must remain at a specified location during fuelling operations
with passengers on board. This qualified person must be capable of handling
emergency procedures concerning fire protection and fire fighting, handling
communications and initiating and directing an evacuation.

• When passengers are embarking or disembarking during fuelling operations, they

should do so under the supervision of an airline official and their route should
avoid the fuelling zones.

• When using Jet A1 fuel, refuelling can be done with passengers on board.
MARKING OFF FUELLING EQUIPMENT

Fuelling vehicles dispensing AVGAS will be

identified by prominently placed labels

☐☐
with the word ‘AVGAS’ and grade
printed in white on a red background.

Fuelling vehicles dispensing AVTUR will be

identified by prominently placed labels with
the word ‘AVTUR/JET A/JET B’ printed in
white on a black background.