Airframe

Aircraft Structures
 Introduction
 The history of aircraft structures underlies the history of aviation in
general. Advances in materials and processes used to construct
aircraft have led to their evolution from simple wood truss
structures to the sleek aerodynamic flying machines of today.

 Combined with continuous powerplant development, the structures

of “flying machines” have changed significantly.

 The key discovery that “lift” could be created by passing air over
the top of a curved surface set the development of fixed and rotary-
wing aircraft in motion.
 Introduction

 A typical aircraft is made of many thousands of individual

parts. Some parts could be made from larger pieces.
 why do you think manufacturers make the aircraft in so
many separate parts?
– Through use, components will wear out, so we need to be
able to replace them.
– Some components will inevitably become damaged, so
again, they will need replacing.
– Some components are made out of several sub-assemblies
in case one part fails, the other components will stop the
aircraft from crashing.
 Airframe Components

Any airframe is made up of several ‘major’ components

es Cock
in pit/Fli
lage En g ght D
F us e e ck

Win
Rudder gs

Flaps
Elev
ator
s
Fin

Aile F uel G e ar
ne Tank g
ro ns Ta ilp l a s L andin
Here, we will discuss the following 4 major components.

dy ) Wing
Bo s ( or
or Main
ela ge ( pl ane)
F u s

Unde
rc a r r
iage Tailplane
 Structural Loads

All the loads that the structure of the airframe carries are resisted by
components that are shaped and formed to resist those forces.

Can you think of types of forces (or loads) that would be present in
components of an aircraft wing?

Tearing
s h i n g
Squa
l li n g
Pu
Bendi
n g Twistin
g
 Structural Elements

 The airframe designer has 4 types of structural element that

can be used to resist these forces – they are;
– Ties: These resist tension or ‘pulling’ forces
– Struts: These resist compression or ‘squashing’
forces
– Beams: These resist ‘bending’ forces
– Webs: These resist ‘twisting’ and ‘tearing’ forces
 These elements are often also referred to as structural
members
 Major Structural Stresses

 Aircraft structural members are designed to carry a load or to

resist stress.
 In designing an aircraft, every square inch of wing and fuselage,
every rib, spar, and even each metal fitting must be considered in
relation to the physical characteristics of the material of which it
is made.
 Every part of the aircraft must be planned to carry the loads to be
imposed on it.
 The determination of such loads is called stress analysis.
 Types of stresses

There are five major stresses to which all aircraft are

subjected:
Tension

Compression

Torsion

Shear

Bending
 Types of stresses

 Tension is the stress that resists a force that tends to pull something
apart. The engine pulls the aircraft forward, but air resistance tries
to hold it back. The result is tension, which stretches the aircraft.
 Compression is the stress that resists a crushing force.
Compression is the stress that tends to shorten or squeeze aircraft
parts.
 Torsion is the stress that produces twisting. While moving the
aircraft forward, the engine also tends to twist it to one side, but
other aircraft components hold it on course. So, torsion is created.
The torsion strength of a material is its resistance to twisting or
torque.
 Types of stresses
 Shear is the stress that resists the force tending to cause one layer
of a material to slide over an adjacent layer. Two riveted plates in
tension subject the rivets to a shearing force. Aircraft parts,
especially screws, bolts, and rivets, are often subject to a shearing
force.

 Bending stress is a combination of compression and tension. The

rod in Figure E has been shortened (compressed) on the inside of
the bend and stretched on the outside of the bend.
 Ties

 Ties are members subject purely to tension (pulling). A

tie can be a rigid member such as a tube, or simply a
wire.

Force Tie Force

 Struts

 Struts are members in compression (squashing). It is much more

difficult to design a strut than a tie, because a strut is liable to bend
or buckle.

STRUT
Force Force
 If a strut is put under compression until it fails, a long strut will
always buckle, a short strut will always crack (crush) and a
medium strut will either buckle or crack, or sometimes both.
 Hollow tubes generally make the best struts.
 Beams

 Beams are members that carry loads at an angle (generally at right

angles) to their length, and take loads in bending.
 The beams in an airframe include most of the critical parts of the
structure, such as the wing main spars and stringers. Even large
structures in the aircraft are acting as a beam, for instance, the
fuselage.
Force

BEAM

Support Support
 Webs

 Webs (or shear webs) are members carrying loads in shear, like
tearing a piece of paper. The ribs and the skin within the wing
itself are shear webs.

Force

WEB

Force
Aircraft Components
 Fuselage
 The fuselage is the main structure or body of the fixed-wing
aircraft. It provides space for cargo, controls, accessories,
passengers, and other equipment.
 In single-engine aircraft, the fuselage houses the powerplant.
 In multiengine aircraft, the engines may be either in the fuselage,
attached to the fuselage, or suspended from the wing structure.
 There are two general types of fuselage construction: truss and
monocoque.
 Truss Type

 A truss is a rigid framework made up of members, such as beams,

struts, and bars to resist deformation by applied loads. The truss-
framed fuselage is generally covered with fabric.

 The truss-type fuselage frame is usually constructed of steel tubing

welded together in such a manner that all members of the truss can
carry both tension and compression loads.

 In some aircraft, truss fuselage frames may be constructed of

aluminum alloy and may be riveted or bolted into one piece, with
cross-bracing achieved by using solid rods or tubes.
Truss fuselage
 Truss Types

 The Pratt Truss: A frame design that

uses triangles sloping towards the center
of the airframe as its structure. Was
invented in 1844 by Thomas and Caleb
Pratt.

 The Warren Truss : A frame design that

was patented in 1848 by its designers
James Warren and Theobald Monzani.
Consists of longitudinal members joined
only by angled cross-members, forming
alternating inverted equilateral triangles.
 Monocoque Type

The monocoque (single shell) fuselage relies largely on the

strength of the skin or covering to carry the primary loads. The
design may be divided into two classes:
Monocoque

Semi monocoque
Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to either of the
two classes, but most modern aircraft are considered to be of semi-
monocoque type construction.
 Monocoque Type
 The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame assemblies,
and bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage.

 The heaviest of these structural members are located at intervals

to carry concentrated loads and at points where fittings are used to
attach other units such as wings, powerplants, and stabilizers.

 Since no other bracing members are present, the skin must carry
the primary stresses and keep the fuselage rigid. Thus, the biggest
problem involved in monocoque construction is maintaining
enough strength while keeping the weight within allowable limits.
monocoque
 Semi-monocoque
 To overcome the strength/weight problem of monocoque
construction, a modification called semi-monocoque construction
was developed.

 It also consists of frame assemblies, bulkheads, and formers as

used in the monocoque design but, additionally, the skin is
reinforced by longitudinal members called longerons.

 Longerons usually extend across several frame members and help

the skin support primary bending loads. They are typically made
of aluminum alloy either of a single piece or a built-up
construction.
 Semi-monocoque

 Stringers are also used in the semi-monocoque fuselage. These

longitudinal members are typically more numerous and lighter in
weight than the longerons.

 They come in a variety of shapes and are usually made from

single piece aluminum alloy extrusions or formed aluminum.

 Stringers have some rigidity but are chiefly used for giving shape
and for attachment of the skin.

 Stringers and longerons together prevent tension and

compression from bending the fuselage.
 Semi-monocoque

 Other bracing between the longerons and stringers can also be

used. Often referred to as web members, these additional support
pieces may be installed vertically or diagonally.

 It must be noted that manufacturers use different nomenclature to

describe structural members.

 For example, there is often little difference between some rings,

frames, and formers. One manufacturer may call the same type of
brace a ring or a frame.
 Semi-monocoque
 The semi-monocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of alloys
of aluminum and magnesium, although steel and titanium are
sometimes found in areas of high temperatures.

 Individually, no one of the aforementioned components is strong

enough to carry the loads imposed during flight and landing. But,
when combined, those components form a strong, rigid
framework.

 This is accomplished with gussets, rivets, nuts and bolts, screws,

and even friction stir welding. A gusset is a type of connection
bracket that adds strength.
Rivets Bolts and nuts Screws

Gussets Friction Stir welding

 Semi-monocoque

 To summarize, in semi-monocoque fuselages, the strong, heavy

longerons hold the bulkheads and formers, and these, in turn, hold
the stringers, braces, web members, etc.

 All are designed to be attached together and to the skin to achieve

the full strength benefits of semi-monocoque design.

 It is important to recognize that the metal skin or covering carries

part of the load.

 The fuselage skin thickness can vary with the load carried and the
stresses sustained at a particular location.
 advantages of the semi-monocoque
 The bulkheads, frames, stringers, and longerons facilitate the design and
construction of a streamlined fuselage that is both rigid and strong.

 Spreading loads among these structures and the skin means no single
piece is failure critical.

 This means that a semi-monocoque fuselage, because of its stressed-skin

construction, may withstand considerable damage and still be strong
enough to hold together. Fuselages are generally constructed in two or
more sections.

 On small aircraft, they are generally made in two or three sections, while
larger aircraft may be made up of as many as six sections or more before
being assembled.
 Pressurization
 Pressurization causes significant stress on the fuselage structure and
adds to the complexity of design.
 In addition to withstanding the difference in pressure between the air
inside and outside the cabin, cycling from unpressurized to
pressurized and back again each flight causes metal fatigue.
 To deal with these impacts and the other stresses of flight, nearly all
pressurized aircraft are semi-monocoque in design.
 Pressurized fuselage structures undergo extensive periodic
inspections to ensure that any damage is discovered and repaired.
 Repeated weakness or failure in an area of structure may require that
section of the fuselage be modified or redesigned.
 Wing Structure
 The wings of an aircraft are designed to lift it into the air.
 Their particular design for any given aircraft depends on a number of
factors, such as size, weight, use of the aircraft, desired speed in
flight and at landing, and desired rate of climb.
 Often wings are of full cantilever design. They are built so that no
external bracing is needed. They are supported internally by
structural members assisted by the skin of the aircraft.
 Other aircraft wings use external struts or wires to assist in
supporting the wing and carrying the aerodynamic and landing loads.
Wing support cables and struts are generally made from steel.
Wing Structure
 Wing Structure
 The internal structures of most wings are made up of spars and
stringers running spanwise and ribs and formers or bulkheads
running chordwise (leading edge to trailing edge).
 The spars are the principle structural members of a wing. They
support all distributed loads, as well as concentrated weights such
as the fuselage, landing gear, and engines.
 The skin, which is attached to the wing structure, carries part of
the loads imposed during flight. It also transfers the stresses to
the wing ribs.
 The ribs, in turn, transfer the loads to the wing spars.
 Wing Structure

In general, wing construction is based on one of three fundamental

designs:
Monospar
Multispar
Box beam

Modification of these basic designs may be adopted by various

manufacturers.
Wing Structure
 The box beam type of wing construction uses two main longitudinal
members with connecting bulkheads to furnish additional strength and
to give contour to the wing.
 A corrugated sheet may be placed between the bulkheads and the
smooth outer skin so that the wing can better carry tension and
compression loads.
 In some cases, heavy longitudinal stiffeners are substituted for the
corrugated sheets. A combination of corrugated sheets on the upper
surface of the wing and stiffeners on the lower surface is sometimes
used.
 Air transport category aircraft often utilize box beam wing construction.
 Box beam
 The box beam type of wing construction uses two main
longitudinal members with connecting bulkheads to furnish
additional strength and to give contour to the wing.

 A corrugated sheet may be placed between the bulkheads and the

smooth outer skin so that the wing can better carry tension and
compression loads.

 In some cases, heavy longitudinal stiffeners are substituted for the

corrugated sheets.

 A combination of corrugated sheets on the upper surface of the

wing and stiffeners on the lower surface is sometimes used.
 Wing Spars
 Spars are the principal structural members of the wing. They correspond to
the longerons of the fuselage.
 They run parallel to the lateral axis of the aircraft, from the fuselage toward
the tip of the wing, and are usually attached to the fuselage by wing fittings,
plain beams, or a truss.
 Spars may be made of metal, wood, or composite materials depending on
the design criteria of a specific aircraft. Wooden spars are usually made
from spruce.
 Examples of metal wing spar shapes.

A sine wave wing spar can be

A plate web wing spar A fail-safe spar with a riveted made from aluminum or
with vertical stiffeners spar web composite materials
 Wing Ribs
 Ribs are the structural crosspieces that combine with spars and
stringers to make up the framework of the wing.
 They usually extend from the wing leading edge to the rear spar or
to the trailing edge of the wing.
 The ribs give the wing its cambered shape and transmit the load
from the skin and stringers to the spars.
 Similar ribs are also used in ailerons, elevators, rudders, and
stabilizers.
 Note that to reinforce the truss, gussets are used. They provide
greater support throughout the entire rib with very little additional
weight.
 The wing tip is often a removable unit, bolted to the outboard end
of the wing panel.
 One reason for this is the vulnerability of the wing tips to damage,
especially during ground handling and taxiing.
 Wing Skin
 Often, the skin on a wing is designed to carry part of the flight and
ground loads in combination with the spars and ribs. This is
known as a stressed-skin design.
 The all-metal, full cantilever wing section shows the structure of
one such design.
 The lack of extra internal or external bracing requires that the skin
share some of the load. Notice the skin is stiffened to aid with this
function.
 Wing Skin
 On aircraft with stressed-skin wing design, honeycomb structured
wing panels are often used as skin.
 A honeycomb structure is built up from a core material resembling
a bee hive’s honeycomb which is laminated or sandwiched between
thin outer skin sheets.
 Panels formed like this are light weight and very strong. They have
a variety of uses on the aircraft, such as floor panels, bulkheads, and
control surfaces, as well as wing skin panels.
 A honeycomb panel can be made from a wide variety of materials.
Aluminum core honeycomb with an outer skin of aluminum is
common.
Engine nacelles
 Nacelles
 The framework of a nacelle usually consists of structural members
similar to those of the fuselage. Lengthwise members, such as
longerons and stringers, combine with horizontal/vertical
members, such as rings, formers, and bulkheads, to give the
nacelle its shape and structural integrity.
 A firewall is incorporated to isolate the engine compartment from
the rest of the aircraft. This is basically a stainless steel or
titanium bulkhead that contains a fire in the confines of the nacelle
rather than letting it spread throughout the airframe.
 FUEL CELLS
 Fuel is often carried inside the wings of a stressed-skin aircraft.
The joints in the wing can be sealed with a special fuel resistant
sealant enabling fuel to be stored directly inside the structure. This
is known as wet wing design.
 Alternately, a fuel-carrying bladder or tank can be fitted inside a
wing.
 This structure increases strength while reducing weight. Proper
sealing of the structure allows fuel to be stored in the box sections
of the wing.
The fuselage terminates at the tail cone with similar but more
lightweight construction.
Vertical stabilizer
Materials
 Materials
 In the early days of aviation, airframes were built from wood,
canvas and steel wire.
 However, modern airframe designs use a variety of different
materials in their construction and it now common to find the
following materials within the main structure.
P lastic Alum
e R ein fo rced in ium a
Carbon Fibr nd M
(CFRP) Plastics
ag
Alloy nesium
u m s
n ium an i
l u mi
d Ti t
d a lare) an
f o re G i u m l l o ys
n
s re-in inate ( T i ta
A Com
s lam p
Gla Steel and osite
s
Steel All
oys
 Superplastic forming and diffusion bonding (SPF/DB) is a technique allowing
to manufacture complex-shaped hollow metallic parts. It combines Superplastic
forming (SPF) with a second element "Diffusion Bonding" to create the
completed structures.
 Material Design Factors

Due to the many different factors to consider, it is difficult to say

how different materials can be compared.
Some will be better at resisting tension (stretching) better than
others
Some will be better at resisting compression (squashing)
Other materials will be better at coping with extremes of
temperature
Even different types of aluminium alloys are preferred for different
types of loads.
 Material Properties

 They should be able to withstand corrosion or other

deterioration due to environmental effects
– Weather, sea water or man made chemicals that it may
come in contact with
– Subjecting some materials to high loads and corrosive
fluids can lead to Stress Corrosion Cracking
 Material Properties

 The material should be capable of supporting a fire

– Magnesium alloys can burn fiercely when exposed to
high temperatures
 However, they should NOT suffer badly from fatigue
(damage caused by stress).
– Or if to be used, can only be used in parts that are not
subject to fatigue conditions
 Strength to Weight Ratio
 The best way to compare different materials is by considering
their Strength to Weight Ratio.
– i.e. How much weight can be hung from a sample of the
material before it fails under the excessive loading.

 However, there are other things that can be considered as well as

the Strength to Weight Ratio.
 Landing Gear Structure
 The landing gear is the principle support of the airplane
when parked, taxiing, taking off, or when landing.
 The most common type of landing gear consists of wheels,
but airplanes can also be equipped with floats for water
operations, or skis for landing on snow.
 The landing gear consists of three wheels — two main
wheels and a third wheel positioned either at the front or
rear of the airplane.
 Landing gear employing a rear mounted wheel is called
conventional landing gear.
 Landing Gear Structure
 Airplanes with conventional landing gear are sometimes
referred to as tail wheel airplanes.
 When the third wheel is located on the nose, it is called
nose wheel, and the design is referred to as a tricycle gear.
 A steerable nose wheel or tail wheel permits the airplane
to be controlled throughout all operations while on the
ground.
 The Undercarriage

An undercarriage (or landing gear) of some sort is needed by all

aircraft which operate from land.

Can you think of some of the jobs it is required to do?

Withstand
sor bs t he shock of theside loads o
Ab f crosswind
landings offs and lan take-
dings
Suppo
rts the Withstands the larg
ai r c r a e braking
groun f t on t loads during landin
d he g
Minimum ro
lling friction
minimum dr on take-off,
ag in the air ooth ta xying
Provides for sm

6
 The ‘Tail Sitter’ Undercarriage

Historically, early aircraft had a tail wheel arrangement instead of the

nose wheel.

These aircraft are referred to as ‘Tail Sitters’ due to the attitude they
took when on the ground.

Although, some light aircraft have a tail wheel instead of a nose

wheel, this arrangement is no longer common.

7
 Tri-cycle Undercarriage

Most modern aircraft are usually supported on the ground by

three units - two main wheels and a nose wheel.

This is what is referred to as a ‘Tri-cycle’ undercarriage

7
 Advantages of Tri-cycle Layout

The main advantages of employing a tri-cycle undercarriage layout are;

– Ground manoeuvring is easier with a steerable nose wheel.
– The pilot’s view is improved during taxiing.
– The aircraft floor is horizontal when it’s on the ground.
– Aerodynamic drag on take-off is reduced, giving much better take-off
performance.
– Directional stability on the ground is improved, because the C of G is
forward of the main wheels.
– Braking is more straightforward, and brake parachutes can be used.
– There is less tendency to float and bounce on landing, making landing
easier.

7
 Disadvantages of Tri-cycle Layout

Despite all the advantages of utilising the tri-cycle undercarriage

layout within the airframe design, there are some disadvantages;

– Nose wheels need to be stronger and therefore heavier than

tail wheels.

– More damage is done to the aircraft if the nose wheel

collapses

7
 Large Aircraft Undercarriage

Large aircraft, such as modern passenger aircraft can have

complicated landing gear arrangements.

– The picture shows an Airbus A340 undercarriage just at the

point of touchdown.
Main ‘wing’
undercarriage
Main ‘body’
undercarriage

7
4
 Landing Forces

When an aircraft lands, a large force is applied through the undercarriage as it

touches the ground.

– For Transport aircraft, this may be up

to 3 times the weight of the aircraft.
– For aircraft landing on the deck of a
ship, this can be up to 8 times.
To prevent damage to the structure, and
to stop the aircraft bouncing, this shock
must be absorbed and dissipated by the
undercarriage.

7
 Coping with these Forces

On light aircraft, the undercarriage may be just a piece of spring

steel, with perhaps a rubber mounting in the aircraft fuselage.

On heavier aircraft a telescopic

shock absorber known as an oleo
leg is almost always used.

This allows for the force of landing

to be absorbed.

7
 Types of Oleo Leg

Most service aircraft, as well as most civil transports, are fitted with
oleo-pneumatic or oil-compression type undercarriages.

The operation of both units is very similar.

– An oleo-pneumatic unit compresses air or nitrogen gas.

– An oil-compression unit (often known as liquid spring) works

by compressing oil.

7
 How an Oleo Works

Compressing the strut reduces the volume inside and compresses

the gas or oil, like operating a bicycle pump.

Any tendency to bounce is prevented by forcing the damping oil

through small holes, so that the strut can only extend quite slowly.

The gas or oil will stay slightly compressed when it has the weight
of the aircraft on it, so it is cushioned while taxiing.

7
 Nose Wheel & Steering

The operation of Nose Wheel shock absorber units is similar, but

their construction differs slightly in that they are usually designed to
allow the Nose Wheel to be steered, by rotating the entire unit, or by
steering motors on larger aircraft.
On large aircraft, some of the main
body wheels will pivot to help
prevent the tyres from ‘scrubbing’ in
tight turns.

Often the Nose Wheel steering

must be capable of being
disconnected for towing.

8
 Undercarriage Considerations

To make sure the aircraft tail does not hit the ground on take-off or
landing, the main wheels must be behind the Centre of Gravity.

If they are too far back, very high loads will be taken on the nose
wheel during landings, which may cause it to collapse.

Main units are often retracted

into the wings (or the body for
larger aircraft) (into the wheel
well).

8
 Wheel Units

All of these factors mean that the undercarriage positions must be

very carefully designed.

Each main-wheel unit consists of a single, double, tandem or bogie

unit, of four or more wheels.

There are even more variations than this,

but they are not common.

– As aircraft become heavier, the

loading on a single wheel increases,
leading to a great increase in the
damage done to runways.
 Load Distribution

By having the weight spread over a number of wheels, the

contact pressure of the undercarriage is reduced.

– This leads to reduced undercarriage weight and increased

safety if a tyre bursts on landing.

The new Airbus A380 has 22 wheels

– Four main units, 2 with four-wheel bogies and 2 with 6
wheel-bogies, and a double nose-wheel unit.

8
 Examples

The images below show the more robust wheel units as utilised on
civil aircraft designs.

In this case, both images are of main wheel units as fitted to the
Airbus A380.

– Note the number of wheels required to distribute the heavy

load of the aircraft!

8
 Jockey Wheel Units

A variation of the tandem arrangement is the Jockey Unit, which

comprises two or three levered legs in tandem on each side of the
fuselage, sharing a common horizontal shock absorber.

Amongst the advantages of this design are excellent rough-field

performance and the ability to lower the aircraft down (kneeling) for
easier loading.

The units also retract into a small space, without penetrating into the
load space.

This makes this arrangement ideal for transport aircraft like the
Hercules.
 Jockey Wheel Unit Example

A Jockey Unit on the Antonov AN-225 Mriya transport aircraft.

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 Undercarriage Retraction

An undercarriage causes a lot of drag in flight, so it is retracted

into the wings or fuselage in most aircraft, except when needed.

In most cases, a hydraulic jack is used to pull the undercarriage

legs, about a pivot at the top.

The doors to the undercarriage well may be attached to the legs, or

may use separate jacks to open and close them.

In many cases the undercarriage needs to fit into a very small

space, and the units may be turned, twisted or folded to enable this
to be done.