STAGES OF A RESEARCH

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

• Research process consists of series of actions or steps
necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired
sequencing of these steps.
• Whenever a scientific problem is to be solved there are
several important steps to follow.
• A general set of sequential components of research is the
following:
1. Selection of a research topic
2. Literature survey and reference collection
4. 5. Formulation of hypotheses
6. Research design
7. Actual investigation
8. Data analysis
9. Interpretation of result
10. Report
 (1) FORMULATION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM

• The starting point of a research is the selection of a research

problem
• Every age has its own problems, numerous in number
• The deep significance of certain problems for the advancement of
science and society must be taken into consideration in choosing a
problem of research.
• Identifying a suitable topic for work is one of the most difficult
parts of a research.
• Before choosing a research topic and a problem the young
researchers should keep the following points in mind.
• Topic should be suitable for research.
• The researcher should have interest in it.
• Topic should not be chosen by compulsion from some one else.
• Topic and problem can be fixed in consultation with the research
supervisor.
• There are two types of research problems;
those which relate to states of nature and
those which relate to relationships between
variables.
• Essentially two steps are involved in
formulating the research problem;
understanding the problem thoroughly, and
rephrasing the same into meaningful terms
from an analytical point of view.
• The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss
it with one’s own colleagues or with those having some
expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the
researcher can seek the help from a guide who is usually
an experienced man and has several research problems
in mind.

• This task of formulating, or defining, a research problem

is a step of greatest importance in the entire research
process. The problem to be investigated must be
defined unambiguously for that will help discriminating
relevant data from irrelevant ones. Care must, however,
be taken to verify the objectivity and validity of the
background facts concerning the problem.
• The statement of the objective is of basic importance
because it determines the data which are to be collected,
the characteristics of the data which are relevant,
relationships which are to be explored, the choice of
techniques to be used in these explorations and the form
of the final report.

• If there are certain pertinent terms, the same should be

clearly defined along with the task of formulating the
problem. In fact, formulation of the problem often follows
a sequential pattern where a number of formulations are
set up, each formulation more specific than the preceding
one, each one phrased in more analytical terms, and each
more realistic in terms of the available data and resources.
Identification of a Research Topic and Problems
• Some sources of identification of a research topic and
problems are the following:
– (1) Theory of one’s own interest
– (2) Daily problems
– (3) Technological changes
– (4) Recent trends
– (5) Unexplored areas
– (6) Discussion with experts and research supervisor
• Don’t choose a topic simply because it is fascinating. In
choosing a topic one should take care of the possibility of
data collection, quantity of gain, breadth of the topic and so
on.
• The topic should not be too narrow. For example, the study
of social status and sexual life of married couples of same sex
(man-man marriage and woman-woman marriage) is
interesting and of social relevance.
(2)EXTENSIVE LITERATURE SURVEY
• Literature survey is a collection of research publications, books
and other documents related to the defined problem .
• It is very essential to know whether the defined problem has
already been solved, status of the problem, techniques that are
useful to investigate the problem and other related details.
• Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be
written down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a
thesis for a degree, masters or Ph.D. to write a synopsis of the
topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research
Board for approval.
• At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive
literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose,
the abstracting and indexing journals and published or
unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to.
•
• Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports,
books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the
problem.
• In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead
to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the
study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library will be a
great help to the researcher at this stage.
• Specify researcher should review the following:-
– (1) the journals which publish abstracts of papers published in
various journals,
– (2) review articles related to the topic chosen,
(3) journals which publish research articles,
– (4) advanced level books on the chosen topic,
– (5) proceedings of conferences, workshops, etc.,
– (6) reprint/preprint collections available with the supervisor
and nearby experts working on the topic chosen and
– (7) Internet.
• Literature survey helps us
– (1) sharpen the problem, reformulate it or even
leads to defining other closely related problems,
– (2) get proper understanding of the problem
chosen,
– (3) acquire proper theoretical and practical
knowledge to investigate the problem,
– (4) show how the problem under study relates to
the previous research studies and
– (5) know whether the proposed problem had
already been solved.
• Through literature survey one can collect relevant
information about the problem.
• Clarity of ideas can be acquired through study of literature.
• Apart from literature directly connected with the problem,
the literature that is connected with similar problems is
also useful.
• It helps formulate the problem in a clear-cut way.
• A review on past work helps us know the outcome of those
investigations where similar problems were solved.
• It can help us design methodology for the present work.
• We can also explore the vital links with the various trends
and phases in the chosen topic and familiarize with
characteristic precepts, concepts and interpretations.
• Further, it can help us formulate a satisfactory structure of
the research proposal.
 2) DEFINITION AND FORMULATION OF A PROBLEM

• After identifying a problem, in order to solve

it, it has to be defined and formulated
properly. For this purpose, one can execute
the following.
– State the problem in questionnaire form or in an
equivalent form
– Specify the problem in detail and in precise terms
– List the assumptions made
– Remove the ambiguities, if any, in the statement
of the problem
– Examine the feasibility of a particular solution
 How do you Asses Whether the Defined Problem is a Good Problem?
• A problem in its first definition may not be appealing. It may require
redefinition in order to make it a good problem.
• That is, by suitably rewording or reformulating the chosen problem, it can
be made to meet the criteria of a good problem.
• This is also important to solve the problem successfully. To this end a
researcher can ask a series of questions on the problem. Some are:
– (1) Is the problem really interesting to him and to the scientific
community?
– (2) Is the problem significant to the present status of the topic?
– (3) Is there sufficient supervision/guidance?
– (4) Can the problem be solved in the required time frame?
– (5) Are the necessary equipments, adequate library and
computational facilities, etc. avail-able?
• If the answers to these questions are satisfactory, then the researcher
can initiate work on the chosen problem.
 3) LITERATURE SURVEY
• Literature survey is a collection of research publications, books
and other documents related to the defined problem .
• It is very essential to know whether the defined problem has
already been solved, status of the problem, techniques that
are useful to investigate the problem and other related details.
One can survey
– (1) the journals which publish abstracts of papers published
in various journals,
– (2) review articles related to the topic chosen,
(3) journals which publish research articles,
– (4) advanced level books on the chosen topic,
– (5) proceedings of conferences, workshops, etc.,
– (6) reprint/preprint collections available with the supervisor
and nearby experts working on the topic chosen and
– (7) Internet.
• Literature survey helps us
– (1) sharpen the problem, reformulate it or even
leads to defining other closely related problems,
– (2) get proper understanding of the problem
chosen,
– (3) acquire proper theoretical and practical
knowledge to investigate the problem,
– (4) show how the problem under study relates to
the previous research studies and
– (5) know whether the proposed problem had
already been solved.
• Through survey one can collect relevant information
about the problem.
• Clarity of ideas can be acquired through study of literature.
• Apart from literature directly connected with the problem,
the literature that is connected with similar problems is
also useful.
• It helps formulate the problem in a clear-cut way.
• A review on past work helps us know the outcome of those
investigations where similar problems were solved.
• It can help us design methodology for the present work.
• We can also explore the vital links with the various trends
and phases in the chosen topic and familiarize with
characteristic precepts, concepts and interpretations.
• Further, it can help us formulate a satisfactory structure of
the research proposal.
 The Internet as a Medium For Research
• From past one decade or so the internet became an
important source of knowledge and an effective medium for
research.
• For researchers, it is providing a range of new opportunities
for collecting information, networking, conducting research,
collecting data and disseminating research results.
• Electronic mail, e-journal, on-line submission of articles to
journals, online focus groups, online video conferencing and
online questionary are some of the latest tools opened-up
by the internet.
• Thousands of books and other print publications have been
made available online that would be extremely difficult to
locate otherwise, including out- of-print books, and classic
literature and textbooks that would be much less accessible
in their printed form.
• Some of the scientific research information
available on the internet are:
– Details about various scientific and nonscientific
topics.
– Titles and other relevant information of article
published in various journals, possibly, from past one
decade or so (full article will not be available).
– Preprint of papers submitted by researchers in
certain websites.
– Information about scientific meetings to be held.
– Contact details for other researchers.
– Databases of reference material.
– Places where one can discuss topics and ask for help.
• While the internet contains a virtually unlimited
wealth of information not found in traditional
resources, this abundance also may hinder academic
research. The following are some of the new
challenges for the researcher:
– Problems of sampling.
– Reliability and accuracy of the obtained data information.
– The ethics of conducting research into online
communities.
– Physical access and skills required to use the technologies
involved.
– The changed chronology of interaction resulting from
asynchronous communication.
 4) Assessment of current status of the topic chosen

• The current status of the chosen topic can be identified by

reading the relevant journals and the recent papers,
discussions in conferences, seminars and workshops. One
can perform inquiries at several important places known for
research on proposed topic.
• A study of the current literature in the chosen topic
explores the current status of it. More importantly, review
articles point out not only to the basic aspects and features
of the topic concerned but also give a brief account of its
present status.
• For this purpose, one can survey the journals (for a topic in
physics) such as Physics Reports, Reviews of Modern Physics,
Physical Review Letters, Review section of American Journal
of Physics, Pramana, Current Science and Proceedings of
recently conducted seminars and conferences, etc.
 (3) FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESES (DEVELOPMENT OF
WORKING HYPOTHESES)

• Researchers do not carry out work without any aim or expectation.

Research is not of doing something and presenting what is done.
Every research problem is undertaken aiming at certain outcomes.
• That is, before starting actual work such as performing an
experiment or theoretical calculation or numerical analysis, we
expect certain outcomes from the study. The expectations form the
hypothesis. Hypotheses are scientifically reasonable predictions .
• They are often stated in terms of if-then sentences in certain logical
forms. A hypothesis should provide what we expect to find in the
chosen research problem. That is, the expected or proposed
solutions based on available data and tentative explanations
constitute the hypothesis.
• Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to
draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences.
• Hypothesizing is done only after survey of relevant
literature and learning the present status of the field of
research. It can be formulated based on previous research
and observation.
• To formulate a hypothesis the researcher should acquire
enough knowledge in the topic of research and a
reasonably deep insight about the problem.
• In formulating a hypothesis construct operational
definitions of variables in the research problem.
• Hypothesis is due to an intelligent guess or for inspiration
which is to be tested in the research work rigorously
through appropriate methodology.
• Testing of hypothesis leads to explanation of the
associated phenomenon or event.
• What are the criteria of a good hypothesis? A hypothesis
should have conceptual clarity and a theoretical
orientation. Further, it should be testable. It should be
stated in a suitable way so that it can be tested by
investigation.
• A hypothesis made initially may become incorrect when
the data obtained are analyzed. In this case it has to be
revised. It is important to state the hypothesis of a
research problem in a research report.
• We note that if a hypothesis withstands the experiments
and provides the required facts to make it acceptable,
not only to the researchers performing the experiments
but to others doing other experiments then when
sufficiently reinforced by continual verification the
hypothesis may become a theory.
• How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is
by using the following approach:
• (a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its
origin and the objectives in seeking a solution;
• (b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the
problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
• (c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar
problems; and
• (d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field
interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals
with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the
problem.
• Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about
the subject, examination of the available data and material including
related studies and the counsel of experts and interested parties.
• Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly
defined terms. It may as well be remembered that occasionally we may
encounter a problem where we do not need working
 Examples of hypotheses

Testing Hypotheses
• If the water faucet is opened, then the amount of water flowing will
increase.
• If fenders are placed on a bicycle, then the user will stay dry when going
through puddles.
• If a prisoner learns a work skill while in jail, then he is less likely to commit
a crime when he is released.
• If I raise the temperature of a cup of water, then the amount of sugar that
can be dissolved in it will be increased.
• If the size of the molecules is related to the rate of diffusion as they pass
through a membrane, then smaller molecules will flow through at a
higher rate.
• If there is a relation between the wave length of light and the
photosynthesis rate, then light of different colors will cause the plant to
make different amounts of oxygen.
• If temperature is related to the rate of metabolism in animals, then
raising the ambient temperature will cause an increase in animal
metabolism.
• More students get sick during the final week of testing
that at other times.
• One solar panel can replace one C battery.
• There is a positive correlation between the availability
of hours for work and the productivity of employees.
• Worker satisfaction increases worker productivity.
• Amount of sun exposure will increase the growth of a
tomato plant.
• Childhood obesity is tied to the amount of sugary
drinks injested daily.
• A dog can be trained to alert a human if the telephone
is ringing.
 4) RESEARCH DESIGN

• Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear
cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have
to state the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.
• Plan your work and work your plan
• The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding
maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide for
the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose.
• For a scientific research one has to prepare a research design.
• It should indicate the various approaches to be used in solving the research problem,
sources and information related to the problem and, time frame and the cost budget.
• Essentially, the research design creates the foundation of the entire research work. The
design will help perform the chosen task easily and in a systematic way.
• Once the research design is completed the actual work can be initiated. The first step in
the actual work is to learn the facts pertaining to the problem.
• Particularly, theoretical methods, numerical techniques, experimental techniques and
other relevant data and tools necessary for the present study have to be collected and
learnt.
• Research purposes may be grouped into four categories:
• (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv)
Experimentation.
• A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering
many different aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the
purpose of the research study is that of exploration.
• But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a
situation or of an association between variables, the suitable design
will be one that minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the
data collected and analysed.
• There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-
experimental hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be either
informal designs (such as before-and-after without control, after-only
with control, before-and-after with control) or formal designs (such as
completely randomized design, randomized block design, Latin square
design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the
researcher must select one for his own project.
• The preparation of the research design,
appropriate for a particular research problem,
involves usually the consideration of the following:
• (i) The means of obtaining the information;
• (ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and
his staff (if any);
• (iii) explanation of the way in which selected
means of obtaining information will be organised
• and the reasoning leading to the selection;
• (iv)The time available for research; and
• (v) The cost factor relating to research, i.e., the
finance available for the purpose.
 Determining sample design:
• All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration
of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry.
It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items
are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is
obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest
element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as
the number of observations increases.
• Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its
extent except through a resurvey or use of sample checks.
Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money
and energy. Not only this, census inquiry is not possible in
practice under many circumstances. For instance, blood testing
is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a
few items from the universe for our study purposes. The items
so selected constitute what is technically called a sample.
• The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what
is popularly known as the sample design. In other words, a sample
design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the
plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way
constitutes a sample design.

• Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability

samples. With probability samples each element has a known
probability of being included in the sample but the non-probability
samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability.
Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling,
systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling
whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience
sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques.
 Sample designs
• A brief mention of the important sample
designs is as follows:
• A researcher has to identify and select
materials which are useful to the present
work. Further, the validity and utility of the
information gathered should be tested before
using them.
• Scientific research is based on certain
mathematical, numerical and experimental
methods. These sources have to be properly
studied and judged before applying them to
the problem of interest.
 7) Actual investigation

• One should aim at doing good research. What

is good research?
• Actual investigation should lead to original
contribution and not involve objectionable
duplication. Originality is the basic credit point
of any research. Therefore, actual investi-
gation must be directed towards obtaining
novel results . A researcher should develop
new ideas and obtain deep insight into the
problem in order to get novel and new results
which are the characteristics of a good
research.