First Exams 2025

C4.1 Populations and

Communities

Theme: Interaction and Level of Organisation:

Interdependence Ecosystems
Combined Content

SL and
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From
IB Guiding Questions the IB

How do interactions between organisms regulate sizes of

populations in a community?
What interactions within a community make its
populations interdependent?
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From
SL & HL Content: the IB

C4.1: Populations and

Communities
C4.1.1: Populations as interacting groups of organisms of the same
species living in an area
C4.1.2: Estimation of population size by random sampling
C4.1.3: Random quadrat sampling to estimate population size for sessile
organisms
C4.1.4: Capture–mark–release–recapture and the Lincoln index to
estimate population size for motile organisms
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From
SL & HL Content: the IB

C4.1: Populations and

Communities
C4.1.5: Carrying capacity and competition for limited resources
C4.1.6: Negative feedback control of population size by density-
dependent factors
C4.1.7: Population growth curves
C4.1.8: Modelling of the sigmoid population growth curve
C4.1.9: Competition versus cooperation in intraspecific relationships
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From
SL & HL Content: the IB

C4.1: Populations and

Communities
C4.1.10: A community as all of the interacting organisms in an
ecosystem
C4.1.11: Herbivory, predation, interspecific competition, mutualism,
parasitism and pathogenicity as categories of interspecific
relationship within communities
C4.1.12: Mutualism as an interspecific relationship that benefits both
species
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From
SL & HL Content: the IB

C4.1: Populations and

Communities
C4.1.13: Resource competition between endemic and invasive species
C4.1.14: Tests for interspecific competition
C4.1.15: Use of the chi-squared test for association between two
species
C4.1.16: Predator–prey relationships as an example of density-
dependent control of animal populations
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From
SL & HL Content: the IB

C4.1: Populations and

Communities
C4.1.17: Top-down and bottom-up control of populations in
communities
C4.1.18: Allelopathy and secretion of antibiotics
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SL & HL Key Terms

Population Capture-Mark-Release-Recapture
Reproductive Isolation Lincoln Index
Sampling Carry Capacity
Random Sampling Density-Dependent Factors
Sampling Error Density-Independent Factors
Quadrat Population Density
Sessile Predator
Standard Deviation Prey
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SL & HL Key Terms

Disease Intraspecific Relationships

Population Growth Curve Interspecific Relationships
Natality Community
Mortality Herbivory
Immigration Predation
Emigration Interspecific Competition
Exponential Growth Mutualism
Sigmoid Population Growth Curve Parasitism
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SL & HL Key Terms

Pathogenicity Hypothesis
Root Nodules Test of Association
Mycorrhizae Chi-Squared Test of Association
Zooxanthellae Predator-Prey Cycle
Endemic Species Top-Down Control
Invasive Species Bottom-Up Control
Alien Species Allelopathy
Competitive Exclusion Antibiotic
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From
C4.1.1: Populations as interacting the IB

groups of organisms of the same

species living in an area
Students should understand that members of a population normally
breed and that reproductive isolation is used to distinguish one
population of a species from another.
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Populations
A population consists of one
species in one location at one time.
All members of a population are the
same species, and are capable of
interbreeding to produce viable
offspring.
To be considered ‘populations’,
different groups of the same
species must be reproductively
isolated. Populations of Zebra and Wildebeest are found in Africa
❓ Define reproductively isolated
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Reproductive Isolation

Reproductive isolation occurs

when there is a barrier which
prevents individuals from
reproducing.
Members of a population
normally reproduce.
Reproductive isolation can be Populations of the same Species may be Geographically Isolated
used to distinguish populations.
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From
C4.1.2: Estimation of population size the IB
by random sampling
Students should understand reasons for estimating population size,
rather than counting every individual, and the need for randomness in
sampling procedures.
Nature of Science: Students should be aware that random sampling,
instead of measuring an entire population, inevitably results in sampling
error.
In this case the difference between the estimate of population size and
the true size of the whole population is the sampling error.
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Random Sampling
Sampling
techniques are used
to estimate
population size.

Scientists use
random number
generators to ensure
that sampling is
random, to avoid
bias.
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Random Sampling
Reasons for sampling rather than counting all individuals include:
● Time: There is not enough time to count all individuals in
ecosystems, so sampling allows scientists to determine
reasonably accurate estimates.
● Destructive sampling: Collecting data may involve damage to the
habitat. Sampling reduces the impact on the environment.
● Feasibility of counting: Many animals move in and out of
ecosystems, therefore a count cannot be accurate. Sampling
allows scientists to determine estimates of species present at
different times.
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Random Sampling
It is important that sampling is random, to ensure:
● Representation: It is important that all individuals in a location
could possibly be selected for sampling.
● Removal of biases: Random sampling removes biases when
selecting locations to collect data.
● Generalization: Random sampling allows scientists to generalize
data from samples to a larger habitat.
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Random Sampling
Nature of Science:
Sampling provides scientists with an estimate of a population, and not
an accurate count of the population of a species in a habitat.
The difference between the accurate count of a species and the estimate
is the sampling error.
Scientists can reduce the sampling error by collecting more samples, but
there will always be a sampling error.
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From
C4.1.3: Random quadrat sampling to the IB

estimate population size for sessile

organisms
Both sessile animals and plants, where the numbers of individuals can
be counted, are suitable.
Application of skills: Students should understand what is indicated by
the standard deviation of a mean.
Students do not need to memorize the formula used to calculate this. In
this example, the standard deviation of the mean number of individuals
per quadrat could be determined using a calculator to give a measure of
the variation and how evenly the population is spread.
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Estimating Population Sizes

Quadrat sampling
can be used to
estimate
population sizes
of plants and
sessile animals.
Sessile animals
remain in one
place, for
example corals or
sea anemones.
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Standard Deviation

Standard
deviation is a
measure of how
spread out data is
from the mean
(for data that has
a normal
distribution).
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From
C4.1.4: Capture–mark–release– the IB

recapture and the Lincoln index to

estimate population size for motile
organisms
Application of skills: Students should use the Lincoln index to estimate
population size.
M is the number of individuals caught and marked initially, N is the total
number of individuals recaptured and R is the number of marked
individuals recaptured.
Students should understand the assumptions made when using this
method.
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Capture-Mark-Release-Recapture
Capture-mark-release-recapture is a method of estimating the
population size of motile species.
Data is collected by capturing, marking, releasing and recapturing
individuals , and the population is estimated using the Lincoln index
formula:

M = Number of individuals initially caught and marked.

N = Number of individuals recaptured
R = Number of marked individuals recaptured
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Capture-Mark-Release-Recapture

❓ Describe how
the population
of an animal
can be
estimated in a
habitat.
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Capture-Mark-Release-Recapture
The capture-mark-release-recapture protocol is used to sample the
population. The protocol includes the following steps:
1. A random sample of a population is captured, and counted (M) .
2. Captured individuals are marked, and released.
3. After sufficient time has passed for marked individuals to be
randomly distributed in the population, a second random sample of
the population is captured and counted (N) and the number of
recaptured marked individuals is counted (R)
4. The population is estimated using the Lincoln index formula:
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Using the Lincoln Index

An ecologist captured 350 ants. All of the ants were marked and
released. Two days later, 400 ants were captured. 150 of these ants had
been marked.
❓ Determine the estimated population of ants.

M=
350
N = 400
R = 150
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From
C4.1.5: Carrying capacity and the IB

competition for limited resources

A simple definition of carrying capacity is sufficient, with some examples

of resources that may limit carrying capacity.
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Carrying Capacity
Carrying capacity is
the maximum
population size of a
species that can be
supported long
term in an
environment.
❓ Suggest factors
that may affect
the carrying
capacity of an
ecosystem.
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Carrying Capacity
Factors that can affect the carrying capacity for a species in an
ecosystem include:
● Availability of food
● Availability of water
● Space
● Shelter
● Disease
● Predators
● Climate
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From
C4.1.6: Negative feedback control of the IB

population size by density-

dependent factors
Numbers of individuals in a population may fluctuate due to density-
independent factors, but density dependent factors tend to push the
population back towards the carrying capacity.
In addition to competition for limited resources, include the increased
risk of predation and the transfer of pathogens or pests in dense
populations.
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Factors Affecting Population

Factors affecting Growth
population growth
can be classified as
density dependent
or density
independent factors.
❓ Distinguish
between density
dependent and
density
independent
factors.
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Density Independent Factors

Density independent factors limit population growth but are not
dependent on population density. Density dependent factors are usually
abiotic.
Density dependent factors include:
● Climate events and natural disasters, such as extreme weather:
can increase mortality within a population
● Habitat destruction: reduces the resources available to a population
● Seasonal changes: the availability of resources within an ecosystem
changes with the seasons.
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Density Dependent Factors

Density dependent factors cause a population's growth to change due
to population density. Density dependent factors tend to be biotic.
Typically, as the population increases, density dependent factors will
decrease populations back to carrying capacity. This is an example of
negative feedback.
Density dependent factors include:
● Competition for resources
● Risk of predation
● Disease
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Competition for Resources

Members of the same species
require the same resources to
survive and reproduce.
As the population increases,
competition for resources leads to
reduced availability of resources for
each individual.
Better-adapted individuals are more
likely to survive and reproduce.
Hartebeest compete for Territory
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Risk of Predation
Predators target abundant
populations in an ecosystem.
High populations of prey animals
result in an increase in predator
populations, as there is more food
available.
High predator populations reduce
prey populations.
Predators usually limit population
growth of prey populations. Large Herds of Wildebeest attract Predators
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Disease

High population densities

facilitate the spread of pests
and diseases which are spread
by contact and vectors.
The spread of pathogens can
result in increased mortality,
and a decrease in the
population.

Mosquitoes spread Diseases

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From
C4.1.7: Population growth curves the IB

Students should study at least one case study in an ecosystem.

Students should understand reasons for exponential growth in the initial
phases. A lag phase is not expected as a part of sigmoid population
growth.
Nature of Science: The curve represents an idealized graphical model.
Students should recognize that models are often simplifications of
complex systems.
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From
C4.1.7: Population growth curves the IB

Application of skills: Students should test the growth of a population

against the model of exponential growth using a graph with a
logarithmic scale for size of population on the vertical axis and a
nonlogarithmic scale for time on the horizontal axis.
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Factors Affecting Population

Growth
Four factors
determine whether
a population size
increases or
decreases:
● Natality
● Mortality
● Immigration
● Emigration
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Natality, Mortality, Immigration and

Emigration
Four factors affect the size of a population:
● Natality (N) is the birth rate for a population
● Mortality (M) is the death rate for a population
● Immigration (I) is new individuals entering a population
● Emigration (E) is individuals leaving a population
Change in population size = (N + I) - (M + E)

❓ Predict what happens to population size when natality and

immigration are greater than mortality and emigration.
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Exponential Growth

Exponential
growth is
observed in an
environment
with limited
competition for
resources.
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Sigmoid Population Growth Curve

When a species
enters a new
location, the
population
typically
produces a
sigmoid
population
growth curve.
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Sigmoid Population Growth Curve

Read the linked article on

sigmoid population curves.

❓ Outline the three phases

of sigmoid population
growth

Sigmoid Population Growth Curve

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Sigmoid Population Growth Curve

Plateau Phase:
Exponential Phase: Carrying capacity is
reached as natality
Beginswith a lag phase as
equals mortality due to
individuals adapt to the
limiting factors (such as
ecosystem.
food, predators, and
There is then an
disease).
exponential increase in
The population will
numbers, as natality greatly
fluctuate around the
exceeds mortality.
carrying capacity.
Mortality is low due to
abundant resources and
Transitional Phase:
low competition.
Resources become limited due to competition
as the population continues to grow.
Mortality increases as natality decreases.
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Rabbits in Australia
Rabbits were introduced to Australia in the 1800’s.

❓ Read the linked article on rabbit

populations in Australia to answer the
following:
1. Outline why the population of
rabbits increased in Australia.
2. Explain why the distribution of
rabbits is not the same throughout
all of Australia. Rabbits in Australia
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From
C4.1.8: Modelling of the sigmoid the IB

population growth curve

Application of skills: Students should collect data regarding population

growth.
Yeast and duckweed are recommended but other organisms that
proliferate under experimental conditions could be used.
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Modelling Population Growth

Students can investigate population growth in the laboratory under
controlled conditions using either:
● Duckweed
● Yeast
Data can be collected over several weeks, and data can be graphed with
a logarithmic scale for size of population on the vertical axis and a non-
logarithmic scale for time on the horizontal axis.
Students can compare their data to the predicted sigmoid population
growth curves.
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Modelling Population Growth -

Duckweed
Duckweed is an aquatic plant that can be used to
model population growth.
● Add three plants to a cup, beaker, or container of
water
● Count the number of leaves every three days
● Plot the number of leaves on a graph

See the linked article to create ideal conditions for

population growth.
Duckweed
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Modelling Population Growth -

Baker’s Yeast can be used to modelYeast
population
growth.
● Add a small sample of yeast to a weak sugar
solution.
● There are different methods for measuring yeast
population growth, including:
○ Direct counting of yeast cells
○ Turbidity of yeast suspension using a
colorimeter
Plot the data on a graph over time.
Yeast Cells
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From
C4.1.9: Competition versus the IB

cooperation in intraspecific
relationships
Include reasons for intraspecific competition within a population. Also
include a range of real examples of competition and cooperation.
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Intraspecific Competition
Intraspecific competition is competition for resources between
members of the same species.
Members of the same species compete for all of the same resources as
they all have the same ecological niche.
Intraspecific competition increases due to density dependent factors.
Members of a species will compete for:
● Territory for feeding and reproducing
● Mates for reproducing
● Social dominance in social species
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Intraspecific Competition -
Territory
Bird species such as American
robins compete for territory for
mating and raising young.

Male American robins

aggressively establish and protect
territory with a good supply of
food and nesting sites.
Females select mates based on
the quality of their nesting sites.
American Robins Compete for Territory
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Intraspecific Competition - Mates

Male southern
elephant seals
fight for
dominance over a
harem of females.

The dominant male

has greater access
to females for
reproduction.
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Intraspecific Competition - Social

Dominance
Chimpanzees
compete with each
other for social
position such as
being the alpha
male.
Individuals with a
higher social
position have
preferential access
to food and mates.
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Intraspecific Cooperation
Intraspecific cooperation benefits all members of a population.
Intraspecific cooperation increases the population’s access to resources
and increases protection from predators.
Examples of intraspecific cooperation include:
● Group hunting
● Group foraging
● Defence against predators
● Parenting
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Intraspecific Cooperation - Group

Hunting
Wolves hunt in
packs.
Hunting and
cooperating in a
pack makes it
more likely that
the hunt will be
successful.
All members of the
pack gain access to
food.
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Intraspecific Cooperation -
Foraging
Bees cooperate to
forage and collect
nectar for their
hive.
Bees use a waggle
dance to
communicate to
other workers
good sources of
nectar.
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Intraspecific Cooperation -
Defence
Meerkats
cooperate by
communicating
danger from
predators using
alarm calls.
This allows other
meerkats to
forage safely for
food.
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Intraspecific Cooperation -
Parenting

Female
orangutans
spend nine years
teaching their
child what they
need to survive.
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From
C4.1.10: A community as all of the the IB

interacting organisms in an
ecosystem
Communities comprise all the populations in an area including plants,
animals, fungi and bacteria.
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Communities
A community is
formed by
populations of
different species
living and
interacting with
each other in an
ecosystem.
Communities
include plants,
animals, fungi and
bacteria.
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From
C4.1.11: Herbivory, predation, the IB

interspecific competition,
mutualism, parasitism and
pathogenicity as categories of
interspecific relationship within
Include each type of ecological interaction using at least one example.
communities
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Interspecific Interactions
There are many interspecific interactions within a community.
Interspecific interactions are interactions between members of different
species.
Interspecies interactions include:
● Herbivory ● Mutualism
● Predation ● Parasitism
● Interspecific competition ● Pathogenicity.
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Interspecific Interactions
Research definitions of the different interspecific interactions. Identify
one example of each type of interaction.
❓ Define with examples each of the following:
● Herbivory
● Predation
● Interspecific competition
● Mutualism
● Parasitism
● Pathogenicity.
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Herbivory

Herbivory is the act

of eating plants.
Herbivores are
animals that only eat
plants.
Red deers are
herbivores.

Red Deer eating Grass

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Predation

Predation is preying on
other animals.
Predators kill and eat their
prey.
Lions are predators

Lions are Predators of Wildebeests

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Interspecific Competition
Interspecific competition
occurs when individuals from
different species compete for
the same resources.
Interspecies competition
leads to competitive
exclusion, or species avoiding
competition by having
different ecological niches.
Zebras and Gnus compete for food.
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Mutualism
Mutualism is a close relationship
between two organisms of different
species, in which both individuals benefit.
from the activity of the other.
Symbiosis is a close interaction between
two different species
Insect pollinators, such as bees, form a
mutualistic relationship with plants such
as dandelions.
The insect benefits from a source of food. Bees and Dandelions have a Mutualistic relationship

The plant benefits from being pollinated.

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Parasitism
Parasitism is a form of
symbiosis where one species
benefits, but the other
species is harmed.
Ticks are parasites of many
animals such as dogs.
The tick benefits from feeding
on the dog’s blood.
The dog loses blood, and
Ticks are Parasites of many Mammals
suffers skin irritation.
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Pathogenicity

Pathogenicity occurs
when an organism
infects another species,
causing a disease.
The disease malaria in
humans is caused by the
malarial parasite
entering the human
bloodstream.
A Red Blood Cell infected by the Malarial Parasite
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From
C4.1.12: Mutualism as an the IB

interspecific relationship that

benefits both species
Include these examples: root nodules in Fabaceae (legume family),
mycorrhizae in Orchidaceae (orchid family) and zooxanthellae in hard
corals.
In each case include the benefits to both organisms.
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Mutualism
Mutualism is a close relationship between two organisms of different
species, in which both individuals benefit.
Do some research on the following examples of mutualism.
● Root nodules in Fabaceae (legume family)
● Mycorrhizae in Orchidaceae (orchid family)
● Zooxanthellae in hard corals.

❓ Outline the benefits of the mutualistic relationship to both species

for root nodules in Fabaceae (legume family), mycorrhizae in
Orchidaceae (orchid family) and zooxanthellae in hard corals.
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Root Nodules in Fabaceae

Plants in the legume family, including
soybeans, have nodules containing nitrogen-
fixing bacteria.
Plants require nitrogen compounds, but are
unable to synthesise these compounds.
The nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide the plant
with a supply of nitrogen compounds.
The bacteria receives carbohydrates and
other organic compounds, produced by Nodules on the roots of soybean plants

photosynthesis, from the plant.

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Mycorrhizae
Mycorrhizae are formed by a
symbiotic relationship between
roots of a plant and a fungus.
Orchids are a family of plants
that grow in mineral-poor soil.
Orchids form a mutualistic
relationship with mycorrhizal
fungi.

Orchids form Mycorrhizae wih Fungi

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Mycorrhizae
Orchids benefit by increasing
surface area for absorption of
water and minerals.
The fungi greatly enhance the
orchids’ ability to acquire
nutrients.
The fungus gains as it receives
carbohydrates and protection
from the plant.
Orchids form Mycorrhizae wih Fungi
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Zooxanthellae

Zooxanthellae
algae have a
mutualistic
relationship with
coral polyps.
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Zooxanthellae
The photosynthetic
zooxanthellae algae produce
nutrients such as glucose
used by the corals, as well as
removing wastes and
producing oxygen.
The coral polyps provide
protection for the
zooxanthellae, as well as
providing them with carbon Zooxanthellae and Coral Polyps have a Mutualistic Relationship
dioxide for photosynthesis.
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From
C4.1.13: Resource competition the IB

between endemic and invasive

species
Choose one local example to illustrate competitive advantage over
endemic species in resource acquisition as the basis for an introduced
species becoming invasive.
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Invasive Species
Alien species are
organisms that have
been introduced to
an ecosystem, and
do not occur there
naturally.
Alien species
become invasive
species if they cause
harm to the natural
ecosystem.
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Invasive Species and Competitive

Exclusion
Invasive species often replace endemic (native) species by competitive
exclusion.
The alien species may become an invasive species if they have a better
chance of survival than the native species due to:
● The absence of predators in the new habitat
● The absence of diseases in the new habitat.
● Faster rate of reproduction
● Larger size/more aggressive
● Outcompeting for food and other resources Red Squirrels are an Endemic Species i
n the UK.
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Competitive Exclusion of Red

Squirrels
Competitive exclusion states that no two species can occupy the same niche.

Red squirrels are an

endemic species in the UK,
and grey squirrels are an
invasive species.

Read the linked article on

the squirrels in the UK. Maps showing grey squirrel spread and red squirr
el decline 1945, 2000 & 2010
❓ Outline the trends in
squirrel populations in
the UK and Ireland.
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Competitive Exclusion of Red

Squirrels
Grey squirrels
are outcompeting
red squirrels for
resources in the
UK and Ireland.

❓ Explain why
grey squirrels
out-compete
red squirrels.
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Competitive Exclusion of Red

Squirrels
Grey squirrels are outcompeting red squirrels for the
following reasons:
● Grey squirrels are larger and stronger and out-
compete red squirrels for food and habitat. Grey Squirrel

● The grey squirrels reproduce faster than red

squirrels.
● The grey squirrels are immune to the squirrelpox
virus which kills the red squirrels.

Red Squirrel
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From
C4.1.14: Tests for interspecific the IB

competition
Interspecific competition is indicated but not proven if one species is
more successful in the absence of another.
Students should appreciate the range of possible approaches to
research: laboratory experiments, field observations by random
sampling and field manipulation by removal of one species.
Natural of Science: Students should recognize that hypotheses can be
tested by both experiments and observations and should understand the
difference between them.
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Interspecific Competition
Interspecific competition is a reasonable hypothesis if one species is
more successful than another species in a habitat.
However, there may be other factors for the change in populations.
Scientists have a range of approaches to determine if competition is the
reason for the changes in population, such as:
● Laboratory experiments
● Field studies where one species is removed
● Field observations using tests of association between two species.
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Hypotheses
Nature of Science
A hypothesis is a testable statement on the relationship between two
variables.
A hypothesis can be tested by:
● An experiment designed to test the relationship between two
variables.
● Making repeated observations which allow scientists to determine
if there is a relationship between two variables.
Tests of association, such as the chi-squared test can be used to test
hypotheses.
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From
C4.1.15: Use of the chi-squared test the IB

for association between two species

Application of skills: Students should be able to apply chi-squared tests

on the presence/absence of two species in several sampling sites,
exploring the differences or similarities in distribution.
This may provide evidence for interspecific competition.
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Quadrat Sampling
A quadrat is a frame, traditionally a square, of known dimensions, used
to determine population densities.

A quadrat can be used to collect observations of

the presence of non-motile species in an
ecosystem.
Quadrats should be placed randomly in an
ecosystem. Read the linked article on quadrats.

❓ Explain how quadrats can be placed randomly

in an ecosystem. A Quadrat
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Random Quadrat Sampling

A measuring tape is put out along the edge of the habitat to be studied.
Two random numbers are generated using
tables, calculators or
random number websites.
The first random number determines a
distance along the measuring tape.
The second random number determines a
distance perpendicular to the measuring
tape.
The quadrat is placed precisely where Random Placement of Quadrats

these two numbers intersect.

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Test of Association
It is possible to use quadrat observations to determine if there is a
relationship between two species (or between a species and an abiotic
factor) in an ecosystem.
Associations can be:
● Positive associations: These occur when two species are more
likely to be found together in an ecosystem. Species in mutualistic
relationships have positive associations in ecosystems.
● Negative associations: These occur if two species are not likely to
be found together. Species competing for resources tend to have a
negative association as they avoid direct competition by being in
different niches in the ecosystem.
SL and HL Content

Quadrat Sampling and Tests of

Association
Data to use for a test of association is collected using the random
placement of quadrats within an ecosystem.
● Quadrats are placed inside a defined area
in a random arrangement.
● The presence or absence of the two species
is noted in each quadrat.
● The sampling process is repeated many
times in order to gain a representative data
set.
Random Sampling
SL and HL Content

Chi-Squared Tests of Association

A chi-squared test
is carried out to
determine if data
collected suggests
whether two
species in an
ecosystem are
associated with
each other.
SL and HL Content

Chi-Squared (χ2) Tests of

Association
Data is collected using quadrats in an ecosystem to test whether there is
an association between two species.
A chi-squared test seeks to distinguish between two distinct possibilities
and hence requires two contrasting hypotheses:
● Null hypothesis (H0): There is no significant difference between
the distribution of two species (i.e. distribution is random) –
Accept if P > 5%
● Alternative hypothesis (H1): There is a significant difference
between the distribution of two species (i.e. species are
associated) Accept if P < 5%
SL and HL Content
Chi-Squared (χ2) Tests of
Association
A chi-squared test of association can be completed by following these
steps:
1. Construct a table of observed frequencies for the two species -
using data collected with quadrats in an ecosystem
2. Identify the two possible hypotheses (null and alternative)
3. Construct a table of expected values. Assume that there is no
association between the two species
a. Calculate column and row totals
b. Calculate expected values using the Chi-squared formula:
SL and HL Content

Chi-Squared (χ2) Tests of

Association
4. Calculate chi-squared using the observed values and expected
values.
5. Determine the degree of freedom (df) for the chi-squared test.
6. Use the chi-squared value to determine if P > 0.05 (5%) or P < 0.05
(5%) using a chi-squared table of critical values.
7. Determine if there is an association between the two organisms.
SL and HL Content

Chi-Squared (χ2) Tests of

Association
Data was collected on lesser pond sedge (Carex acutiformis) and marsh
bedstraw (Galium palustre), two plants found near Lake Crosemere in
the UK.
Students collected data on whether the two plants were absent or
present in 100 quadrats at randomly generated coordinates.

❓ Analyse the data on the next slides (already organised into a table) to
determine if an association exists between the two plants.
SL and HL Content

Chi-Squared (χ2) Tests of

Step 1: Construct a tableAssociation
of observed frequencies for the two species -
using data collected with quadrats in an ecosystem

Marsh Bedstraw Marsh Bedstraw

Present Absent Total

Lesser pond
11 3
Sedge Present

Lesser pond
31 55
Sedge absent
Total
SL and HL Content

Chi-Squared (χ2) Tests of

Association
Step 2: Identify the two possible hypotheses (null and alternative)

Null hypothesis (H0):

There is no relationship between the distribution of lesser pond
sedge and marsh bedstraw (i.e. distribution is random)
Accept if P > 5%
Alternative hypothesis (H1):
There is an association between the distribution of lesser pond sedge
and marsh bedstraw (i.e. species are associated)
Accept if P < 5%
SL and HL Content

Chi-Squared (χ2) Tests of

Step 3: Construct a tableAssociation
of expected values. Assume that there is no
association between the two species.
Calculate column and row totals.
Marsh Bedstraw Marsh Bedstraw
Present Absent Total

Lesser pond
11 3 14
Sedge Present

Lesser pond
31 55 16
Sedge absent
Total 42 58 100
SL and HL Content

Chi-Squared (χ2) Tests of

Step 3: Construct a tableAssociation
of expected values. Assume that there is no
association between the two species

Marsh Bedstraw Marsh Bedstraw

Present Absent Total

Lesser pond
(14 x 42)/100 (14 x 58)/100 14
Sedge Present

Lesser pond
(86 x 42)/100 (86 x 58) / 100 16
Sedge absent
Total 42 58 100
SL and HL Content

Chi-Squared (χ2) Tests of

Step 3: Construct a tableAssociation
of expected values. Assume that there is no
association between the two species

Marsh Bedstraw Marsh Bedstraw

Present Absent Total

Lesser pond
5.88 8.12 14
Sedge Present

Lesser pond
36.12 49.88 16
Sedge absent
Total 42 58 100
SL and HL Content

Chi-Squared (χ2) Tests of

Step 4: Calculate chi-squaredAssociation
using the observed values and expected values.
Observed Data Expected Data
Marsh Marsh Marsh Marsh
Bedstraw Bedstraw Bedstraw Bedstraw
Present Absent Present Absent

Lesser pond Lesser pond

11 3 5.88 8.12
Sedge Present Sedge Present

Lesser pond Lesser pond

31 55 36.12 49.88
Sedge absent Sedge absent

This is the data that was These are the calculated

collected using quadrats in an expected values.
ecosystem.
SL and HL Content

Chi-Squared (χ2) Tests of

Step 4: Calculate chi-squaredAssociation
using the observed values and expected values.

Calculate:
Marsh Marsh
Bedstraw Bedstraw
Present Absent
Lesser pond
(11 - 5.88)2 / (3 - 8.12)2 /
Sedge 5.88 8.12
Present for all conditions
Lesser pond Calculate chi-squared
(31 - 31.12)2 / (55 - 49.88)2 / (𝝌2) value by adding
Sedge 36.12 49.88
absent the four calculated
values.
SL and HL Content

Chi-Squared (χ2) Tests of

Step 4: Calculate chi-squaredAssociation
using the observed values and expected values.

Calculate:
Marsh Marsh
Bedstraw Bedstraw
Present Absent
Lesser pond
Sedge 4.46 3.23
Present for all conditions
Lesser pond Calculate chi-squared
Sedge 0.73 0.5 (𝝌2) value by adding
absent the four calculated

𝝌2 = 8.94
values.
SL and HL Content

Chi-Squared (χ2) Tests of

Association
Step 5: Determine the degree of freedom (df) for the chi-squared test.

Degrees of freedom = (number of rows – 1)(number of columns – 1)

(only count the number of cells with data - not the title/heading cells).
In this case (and all tests of association between two species):
Degrees of freedom = (2-1)(2-1) = 1 x 1 = 1
SL and HL Content

Chi-Squared (χ2) Tests of

Association
Step 6: Use the chi-squared value to determine if P > 0.05 (5%) or P <
0.05 (5%) using a chi-squared table of critical values.

The critical value for tests of association is always 3.841 (for 1 degree of
freedom and P = 0.05).
If 𝝌2 < 3.841 then the null hypothesis is accepted (P > 5%)
If 𝝌2 > 3.841 then the alternative hypothesis is accepted (P < 5%)
SL and HL Content

Chi-Squared (χ2) Tests of

Association
Step 7: Determine if there is an association between the two organisms

The Calculated 𝝌2 = 8.94

8.94 > 3.841 (critical value)
We reject the null hypothesis.
We accept the alternative hypothesis:
There is an association between lesser pond sedge and marsh
bedstraw.
SL and HL Content

Interpreting Statistical
Significance
P < 0.05 refers to the probability of the results occurring by chance being
less than 1 in 20. The smaller the value of P the more confidence we
have that the results are statistically significant (not coincidental).
Why is the 0.05 the statistically significant value? Read the linked article
to find out.
SL and HL Content
From
C4.1.16: Predator–prey relationships the IB

as an example of density-dependent
control of animal populations

Include a real case study.

SL and HL Content

Predator-Prey Relationships
Density dependent
factors cause a
population's growth to
change due to
population density.
Density dependent
factors tend to be biotic.
Predator-prey
relationships is an
example of a density
dependent factor.
SL and HL Content

Predator-Prey Cycles
The primary food source for
canadian lynxes are snowshoe
hares.
Watch the video on the linked
website.
Read the linked article.
❓ Explain the predator-prey
cycle between canadian
Lynx and Snowshoe Hare Predator-Prey Cycle
lynxes and snowshoe hares.
SL and HL Content

Lynx-Snowshoe Hare Cycle

There is a clear predator-prey cycle
in the populations of lynx and
snowshoe hares.
When hare populations are high,
there is a plentiful supply of food for
lynxes, and the lynx population
increases.
An increasing lynx population preys
on the snowshoe hare population, Lynx and Snowshoe Hare Predator-Prey Cycle

reducing the population of hares.

SL and HL Content

Lynx-Snowshoe Hare Cycle

As the snowshoe hare population
decreases, the food supply for lynxes
decreases.
The lynx population decreases due to
a shortage of prey/food.
When the lynx population decreases,
the snowshoe hare population
increases again.
The cycle continues, with lynx and Lynx and Snowshoe Hare Predator-Prey Cycle

snowshoe hare populations

controlling each other.
SL and HL Content
From
C4.1.17: Top-down and bottom-up the IB

control of populations in
communities
Students should understand that both of these types of control are
possible, but one or the other is likely to be dominant in a community.
SL and HL Content

Top-Down and Bottom-Up Controls

Top Down Controls Bottom Up Controls
Top down factors are pressures applied Bottom up factors are resources (such
at higher trophic levels to control as nutrients) available to producers,
dynamics in an ecosystem. affecting the growth of producers.
The top predator prevents Population growth at higher trophic
overpopulation of its prey. levels is impacted by the availability of
This has an impact on many species producers.
within the ecosystem
Read the linked article on top down and bottom up control of ecosystems.
Both forms of control may be present in an ecosystem, but only one is likely
to be dominant in any ecosystem.
SL and HL Content

Top-Down Control - Wolves

The Wolves of
Yellowstone
National Park are a
good example of a
top-down control.

The Yellowstone
ecosystem is more
biodiverse due to
the presence of
wolves.
SL and HL Content

Bottom-Up of Algal Blooms

Algal blooms can
be controlled by
reducing the
concentration of
nutrients in
waterways.
This prevents algal
populations from
increasing.
SL and HL Content

Bottom-Up of Algal Blooms

Controlling the use of
fertilizers controls the
algae populations in the
lake.

❓ Outline why reducing

nutrients is an example of
bottom-up control.
Algal Blooms
SL and HL Content

Bottom-Up of Algal Blooms

Algae are producers.
Reducing nutrients puts
pressure on the lowest trophic
level.
Low nutrients results in small
populations of algae.
This affects many other species
in the ecosystem.
Algal Blooms
SL and HL Content
From
C4.1.18: Allelopathy and secretion the IB

of antibiotics
These two processes are similar in that a chemical substance is released
into the environment to deter potential competitors.
Include one specific example of each—where possible, choose a local
example.
SL and HL Content

Allelopathy
Allelopathy is the
release of
chemicals by one
organism which
influences the
germination,
growth, survival or
reproduction of
another organism.
SL and HL Content

Allelopathy - Black Walnut Tree

Black walnut trees produce and
release an allelopathic chemical
called juglone.
Juglone inhibits the growth of many
plants including tomatoes.
Allelopathy reduces competition
from other plants for resources
needed by the black walnut tree.
Black Walnut Trees produce Allelopathic Chemicals
SL and HL Content

Secretion of Antibiotics
The Penicillium fungus
secretes the antibiotic
chemical penicillin.
Penicillin inhibits the
growth of bacteria
near the fungus,
reducing competition
for resources.
Penicillin is used as a
medicine to inhibit
bacterial growth.
SL and HL Content

Review and Discuss: SL & HL Key

Terms
Population Capture-Mark-Release-Recapture
Reproductive Isolation Lincoln Index
Sampling Carry Capacity
Random Sampling Density-Dependent Factors
Sampling Error Density-Independent Factors
Quadrat Population Density
Sessile Predator
Standard Deviation Prey
SL and HL Content

Review and Discuss: SL & HL Key

Terms
Disease Intraspecific Relationships
Population Growth Curve Interspecific Relationships
Natality Community
Mortality Herbivory
Immigration Predation
Emigration Interspecific Competition
Exponential Growth Mutualism
Sigmoid Population Growth Curve Parasitism
SL and HL Content

Review and Discuss: SL & HL Key

Terms
Pathogenicity Hypothesis
Root Nodules Test of Association
Mycorrhizae Chi-Squared Test of Association
Zooxanthellae Predator-Prey Cycle
Endemic Species Top-Down Control
Invasive Species Bottom-Up Control
Alien Species Allelopathy
Competitive Exclusion Antibiotic
SL and HL Content
From
C4.1 Populations and the IB

Communities - IB Linking
Questions
What are the benefits of models in studying biology?
What factors can limit capacity in biological systems?
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